TABLE 3.

Sources and effects of AMPs.

Name of AMPs	Amino acid sequence	Net charge	3D structure	Source	Effects on biofilm	Disadvantages	References
Japonicin-2LF	FIVPSIFLLK KAFCIALKKC	4	Helix	Frog skin secretion	Eradicates the methicillin-resistant S. aureus biofilm matrix as well as kills all the sessile bacteria	Futile against P. aeruginosa biofilms. The anti-biofilm activity concealed by the changes in LPS contents and cell wall structure of microorganisms	Yuan et al., 2019
Dermaseptin-PT9	GLWSKIKDAAKT AGKAALGFVNEMV	2	Helix	Frog skin secretion	Inhibits the biofilm formation of S. aureus, MRSA, and E. coli	More potent activity against Gram-negative bacteria	Li et al., 2019
Phylloseptin-PTa	FLSLIPAA ISAVSALANHF	2	Helix	Frog skin secretion	More potent against S. aureus biofilm	Anti-biofilm activity changed by the hydrophobicity, charges and α-helicity of the peptides	Liu et al., 2017
Moronecidin-like	FFRNLWKGAK AAFRAGHAAWRA	6	Unknown	Seahorse	Inhibits surface attachment of S. aureus biofilm	More effectual against Gram-positive bacteria than Gram-negative bacteria The outer membrane proteins of Gram-negative bacteria may hinder translocation of AMPs through the outer membrane	Mohammadi et al., 2018
Mastoporan	LNLKALL AVAKKIL	4	Helix	European hornet venom	Suppresses biofilm formation by S. aureus and P. aeruginosa	Release histamine from mammalian mast cells may lead to an immune response	Chen et al., 2018
Melittin	GIGAVLKVLTTG LPALISWIKRKRQQ	6	Helix	Honeybee venom	Induce disintegration of the MDR P. aeruginosa and degrades the biofilm	The toxicity of melittin on normal cells is a disadvantage for clinical applications (in case of third-degree burn patients, all three layers of skin are destroyed, so cytotoxicity of melittin hardly limits its applications)	Khozani et al., 2019
NA-CATH	KRFKKFFKKLKNSV KKRAKKFFKKPKVIGVTFPF	15	Helix	Chinese cobra (Naja atra)	Prevent biofilm formation of Burkholderia thailandensis	The small size of the peptide restricts its large-scale synthesis	Blower et al., 2015 de Barros et al., 2019
Defensin ZmD32	RTCQSQSHRFRGPCLRRS NCANVCRTEGFPGG RCRGFRRRCFCTTHC	12	Combine Helix and Beta structure	Corn, Zea mays	Active against Candida albicans biofilms	Anti-biofilm activity of many defensins lost in the presence of salt	Kerenga et al., 2019
Capsicumicine	RSCQQQIQQ AQQLSSCQQYLKQ	–	Unknown	Red pepper, Capsicum bacattum	Prevents the establishment of S. epidermidis biofilm by matrix anti-assembly (MAA) mechanism	NS	Von Borowski et al., 2020
Rhesus theta defensin-1	GFCRCLCRRGVCRCICTR	5	Beta	Monkey leukocytes	Active against established C. albicans biofilms	Most of the host defense peptides exhibit undesirable pro-inflammatory properties and low bioavailability	Basso et al., 2019

NS, not specified.