Table 1.

Specific metabolic alterations in AMs during chronic lung disease^a.

Disease	Metabolic change	Functional change	Ref.
Asthma	↑ HO-1	ROS production	83
	↑ ROS	Lung injury, TNF-α, IL-1β production	80,82
	↑ 15-LOX	5-HETE and leukotrienes	239
	↑ Leukotriene B4/E4	Bronchial constriction, AHR	85–87
	↑ Prostaglandin E2	↓ AM phagocytosis	78
	↑ FAO gene expression (CPT)	↑ FAO metabolism	84
	↑ Glycolysis function PKM2	HIF1a dependent gene expression
	↑ Arg1, ↓ NOS2	Ornithine and proline	89,90
COPD	↑ ROS, ↑ mtROS, ↑ Superoxide	Oxidative stress	108–110
	↓ mtROS after challenge	Impaired bacterial clearance	108
	↓ Glutamyl cysteine ligase	Loss of GSH synthesis	111
	↑ iNOS	NO production	117
	↓ Mt membrane potential	Impaired phagocytosis	114
	↑ Iron sequestration	ROS generation	113
	↑ HIF1α	↑ Glycolysis	119
	↓ Compensatory glycolysis	Unmet energetic demand	7
	↓ Coupling efficiency, ↓ OXPHOS ↑ Proton leak	Dysfunctional metabolism and macrophage phenotype	7
	↑ A2BR	↑ Adenosine metabolism	118
CF	↑ Arginase	Impaired phagocytosis & efferocytosis	132
	↑ ROS release, ↓ GSH	Oxidative stress	136,137
	↓ Superoxide, ↓ NOX phos.	↓ Oxidative burst	141
	↓ Lipoxin A4	↓ Anti-inflammatory potential	147
	↑ Acod11	Persistent P. Aeruginosa infection	143
	↓ CFTR-PTEN complex	ROS production, succinate release	144
	↑ Iron	↑ ROS production	138
	↑ IRE-a pathway	Increased glycolysis & Mt. function	149
IPF	↑ ROS	Oxidative stress	175
	↑ Secreted Rac1	NOX, superoxide, mTOR activation	178,179
	↑ iNOS	NO and OONO- production	181,182
	↓ HO-1	Loss of oxidative response	240
	↑ Iron uptake	Oxidative stress & ROS	184,185
	↓ % of CD71+ AM	Accumulation of transferrin	186
	↑ AKT	Activation of HIF1α	241
	↑ GLUT-1, ↑ Glucose uptake	NADPH production, superoxide	166–168
	↑ Glycolysis, glycolysis genes	M2-like AM profile	166
	↑ FAO		166
	↑ MCU, ↑ Calcium, ↑ PGC-1α	FAO reprogramming, mtROS
TB	↑ ROS/RNS production	Bacterial killing	208
	↑ HIF1a	Aerobic glycolysis, IFN-γ host defence	210
	Warburg shift, ↑ glycolysis genes	↑ IL-1β and bacterial killing	211,215
	↑ Host MiR-21	↓ Glycolytic response, ↑ bacterial survival	215
	↑ Host MiR-33	↓ autophagy, FAO, ↓ host defence	224
	↓ Hydrogen sulphide	↑ Glycolysis & PPP	214
	↑ fumarate	Bactericidal	216
	↑ itaconate	Antimicrobial, modulates host response	217
	Heparin ↓ Hepcidin	Decreased iron availability to bacilli	206
	↑ Iron, superoxide, lipid perox.	Ferroptosis, bacterial spread	220
	↑ FAO, ↑ Lipid accumulation	↑Host response, ↓ Bacterial burden	223,242
	PPAR-α activation	FAO, autophagy & host defence	222
	↑ IDO, ↑ tryptophan	↓ host defence	225
	↑ Glutaminolysis	↑ cytokine profile	243
	↑ Arg1	NO production	244
	↑ NAD+, creatine, GSH	Host defence	245

^aUpward arrow represents increased expression, downward arrow represents decreased expression.