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. 2020 Nov 2;375(1814):20190449. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0449

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© 2020 The Authors.

Published by the Royal Society under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/, which permits unrestricted use, provided the original author and source are credited.

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Figure 1. — (a) Warming-induced responses of individuals, populations and food webs emerge from temperature-dependent rates of individual-level processes. Rates of food intake and metabolism depend on both individual body size and temperature, and size, in turn, on acquired net energy allocated to growth. Thus, warming-induced changes in these rates result in changes in the composition of populations and food webs, which feed back to affect individual growth, survival and reproduction. Such individual-level responses result from feedbacks from warming-induced shifts in population size structure (feedback indicated by 1 in (a)), intraspecific competition (2), interspecific competition (3) and predation (4). These feedbacks couple individual-level processes (yellow) to population (blue) and food web (red) dynamics, and thereby also impact how warming affects bottom-up (e.g. 3) and top-down (e.g. 4) regulation in food webs. (All species are size structured, but for clarity, we have illustrated this only for a focal species, and not for its predator, competitor and resource species.) (b) Examples of predicted, observed and experimentally tested responses to higher temperatures in aquatic systems at the levels of individuals, populations and food webs. Direction of responses is indicated by +, −, 0 or a bent arrow for hump-shaped responses. Numbers (in grey) correspond to citations listed below, where type of aquatic organism is indicated in brackets for observational and experimental studies; F = fish, Z = zooplankton, P = phytoplankton, I = insects, M = microbes, O = other: 1. [7] [F], 2. [4] [F], 3. [17], 4. [18], 5. [22] [F,Z,O], 6. [23] [M], 7. [24] [F,Z,O], 8. [25] [F], 9. [26], 10. [8] [F], 11. [27] [F,P,O], 12. [28] [F,Z,P,O], 13. [29] [M], 14. [30] [F], 15. [16], 16. [31] [ZP], 17. [32], 18. [33] [F], 19. [34] [F], 20. [35] [F], 21. [36] [F], 22. [15] [F], 23. [37] [O], 24. [38] [F], 25. [13] [I], 26. [39] [F], 27. [40] [F], 28. [41] [F], 29. [42] [F], 30. [43] [F], 31. [44] [F], 32. [45] [F], 33. [46] [I], 34. [3] [Z,P], 35. [47] [F], 36. [21], 37. [48], 38. [49], 39. [50] [I,O], 40. [51] [Z,P], 41. [52] [F], 42. [6], 43. [53], 44. [54] [P], 45. [55], 46, [56], 47. [57], 48. [58].