Table 1.
The table describes the findings, reported in studies, regarding serum zinc concentration and intracellular zinc concentration related to the risk factors for COVID–19 (including age, type 2 diabetes and obesity), antihypertensive agents as well as statin therapy
| Type of study | n=no of subjects N=no of studies |
Serum zinc concentration | Intracellular zinc concentration |
| Increasing age | |||
| Observational45 | n=853 | ↓ in 31% of subjects | – |
| Review8 | N=20 | ↓ significant with increasing age | ↓ significant in 1 study |
| Observational17 | n=1521 | ↓ significant with increasing age | – |
| Type 2 diabetes** | |||
| Observational22 | n=82 | ↓ related to higher glycated hemoglobin | ↓ related to higher glycated haemoglobin |
| Meta–analysis18 | n=20183 | ↓ significant versus control groups | – |
| Cross–sectional21 | n=33 | ↓ in 77 % of the subjects | – |
| Observational19 | n=31 | ↓ in 27% versus control group (n=31) | – |
| Cross–sectional20 | n=252 | ↓ in 68% versus control group 6.4% (n=188) | – |
| Obesity | |||
| Observational23
|
n=115 | ↓ in 74% of subjects seeking bariatric surgery | – |
| Review23 | N=3 | ↓ in 28% before bariatric surgery | – |
| ↓ in 36–51% postbariatric surgery | |||
| Diuretics | |||
| Clinical Trial46 | Clopamide 5 mg/day, 16 weeks (n=8) | ↓ significant versus baseline | ↑ in WBC, ↓ in RBC |
| Clinical Trial47 | Hydrochlorothiazide 25–50 mg /day, 6 months (n=39) |
↓ significant in 51% of treatment group | – |
| Clinical Trial48 | Hydrochlorothiazide, 25 mg, ≥3 months (n=9) | ↔ versus controls | – |
| Clinical Trial*25 | Indapamide (n=29), Torasemide (n=5), Spironolacton (n=2), 3 months | ↓ significant compared with baseline zinc level | ↓ significant compared with baseline |
| ACE–inhibitors | |||
| Clinical Trial49 | Captopril, 266±34 mg/day, >6 months (n=11) |
↓ significant versus baseline | – |
| Clinical Trial50 | Captopril, 75 mg/day, >3 months (n=6) | ↔ versus other groups | ↓ significant versus baseline |
| Clinical Trial†28 | Captopril, 50–150 mg/day, 6 months, (n=10) | ↓ significant versus baseline | ↔ versus baseline |
| Clinical Trial51 | Captopril, 6 months (n=16)‡ | ↔ versus baseline | ↓ significant versus baseline |
| Clinical Trial51 | Enalapril, 6 months (n=18)‡ | ↔ versus baseline | ↓ significant versus baseline |
| Clinical Trial50 | Enalapril, 20 mg/day, >3 months (n=7) | ↔ versus controls | ↔ versus controls |
| Clinical Trial†28 | Verapamil, 240 mg⁄day, 6 months (n=10) | ↓ significant versus baseline | ↔ versus baseline |
| Clinical Trial27 | Ramipril, 5 mg/day, 3 months (n=20) | – | ↓ significant versus baseline |
| Clinical Trial*25 | Perindopril (n=9), Captopril (n=3), Ramipril (n=2), 3 months | ↓ versus baseline | ↔ versus baseline |
| Calcium–antagonists | |||
| Clinical Trial*25 | Amlodipine (n=13), Nifedipine (n=5), 3 months |
↔ versus baseline | ↓ significant versus baseline |
| Clinical Trial27 | Amlodipine, 10 mg/day, 3 months (n=20) | – | ↔ versus baseline |
| Angiotensin 2 receptor blockers | |||
| Clinical Trial27 | Valsartan, 80 mg/day, 3 months (n=20) | ↓ significant versus baseline | ↓ significant versus baseline |
| Clinical Trial‡52 | Losartan, 50 mg/day, 4 weeks (n=17) | ↓ non–significant versus baseline | ↔ versus baseline |
| Clinical Trial*25 | Losartan (n=8), Valsartan (n=2), Telmisartan (n=2), 3 months | ↔ versus baseline | ↔ versus baseline |
| Beta blockers | |||
| Clinical Trial27 | Metoprolol, 100 mg/day, 3 months (n=22) | ↔ versus baseline | ↔ versus baseline |
| Clinical Trial†28 | Atenolol, 50–150 mg/day, 6 months (n=10) |
↓ significant versus baseline | ↔ versus baseline |
| Clinical Trial*25 | Bisoprolol (n=7), Metoprolol (n=7), Nebivolol (n=4) | ↔ versus baseline | ↔ versus baseline |
| Statin therapy | |||
| Review29 | Statin therapy, various large scale studies N = 29 | 10–45% increased relative risk for type II diabetes (see above:**) | – |
| Clinical Trial31 | Simvastatin (n=11), Atorvastatin (n=9), 10 mg/day, 4 months |
↓ significant versus baseline | – |
| Clinical Trial30 | Fluvastatin (n=20), 80 mg/day, 8 weeks |
↓ significant versus baseline | – |
↓ decreased, ↑ increased, ↔ no change, – unreported data.
*Randomised clinical trial, dietary zinc intake controlled,
†Modified diet to improve lipid profile during test–period.
‡Dietary zinc intake monitored during test–period.
RBC, red blood cells; WBC, white blood cells.