. 2020 Nov 8;21(21):8368. doi: 10.3390/ijms21218368

Table 1.

The effects of carbohydrates (fructose and GOS) on intestinal permeability and their influence on proteins involved in intestinal barrier integrity. Results obtained from cell, animaland human studies.

Type of Study	Intestinal Permeability; Measurement Method	Levels of TJ Proteins	Levels of Other Proteins Directly Related to Cells Integrity	References
Fructose
in vitro: T84 cells	`↑`; TEER *, FITC-dextran concentration	`↓` ZO-1	-	Cho et al. [48]
in vitro: HT-29 cells	`↑`; FITC-dextran concentration	`↓` Occludin (mRNA)	-	Kawabata et al. [50]
in vivo: mouse	`↑`; endotoxemia	-	-	Bergheim et al. [44]
in vivo: mouse	`↑`; endotoxemia	`↓` Occludin `↓` ZO-1	`↑` MMP-9 (mRNA) `↑` MMP-13 (mRNA) `↓` (TIMP)-1	Spruss et al. [45]
in vivo: mouse	`↑`;endotoxemia, FITC-dextran concentration	`↓` Occludin `↓` ZO-1	-	Do et al. [46]
in vivo: rat	`↑`;LBP, FITC-dextran concentration	`↓` ZO-1	-	Seki et al. [47]
in vivo: mouse and rat	`↑`; endotoxemia, LPS (mouse and rat), FITC-dextran concentration (only mouse)	`↓` ZO-1 `↓` Occludin `↓` CLDN-1 `↓` CLDN-4	`↓` β-catenin `↓` E-cadherin `↓` Desmosome plakoglobin `↓` α-tubulin	Cho et al. [48]
in vivo: mouse	`↑`; endotoxemia, NS; FITC-dextran and PEG400 concentrations, lactulose:mannitol ratio	`↓` Occludin (mRNA) `↓` CLDN-2 (mRNA) `↓` CLDN-5 (mRNA)	`↓` α-defensin 1 (mRNA)	Volynets et al. [51]
in vivo: mouse	`↑`; endotoxemia, FITC-dextran concentration	`↓`Occludin `↓` ZO-1	-	Li et al. [53]
in vivo: human	`↑`; endotoxemia, NS; LBP	-	-	Nier et al. [61]
GOS
in vitro: Caco-2 cells	Prevents from: `↑`; TEER *	-	-	Akbari et al. [70]
in vitro: Caco-2 cells	Prevents from: `↑`; TEER *, FITC-dextran and lucifer yellow concentrations	Prevents from: `↓` CLDN-3 (protein) `↑` CLDN-3 (mRNA)	-	Akbari et al. [69]
in vivo: mouse	NS; FITC-dextran concentration	Prevents from: `↑` CLDN-2 (mRNA) `↑` CLDN-3 (mRNA)	-	Akbari et al. [69]
in vivo: human	`↓`; 24 h collection of sucralose and lactulose excretions to urine NS; LPS, LBP	-	-	Krumbeck et al. [72]

Abbreviations: TJ—tight junction, ZO—zonula occludin, MMP—matrix metalloproteinase, TIMP—tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases, LPS—lipopolysaccharide, LBP—LPS-binding protein FITC—fluorescein isothiocyanate, TEER—transepithelial electrical resistance, T84; HT29—human colon cancers cell lines, CLDN—claudin, PEG400—polyethylene glycol 4000, GOS—galacto-oligosaccharide, NS—not significant/no change, ↑—increased, ↓—decreased. * The increase in permeability is indicated by decreased values of TEER.