Figure 2.

Oxidative stress and autophagy dysregulation in Parkinson's. Oxidative stress and autophagy dysregulation are interconnected in the dopaminergic neurons affected in Parkinson's. In addition, several conditions contribute to this destructive imbalance leading to neuronal death and progressive neurodegeneration, including a reduction in antioxidant pathways (e.g., a reduction in endogenous antioxidant mechanisms and antioxidant transcription factors); ER stress; mitochondrial dysfunction; mutations in key proteins modulating these processes (familial Parkinson's); disruption of the cytoskeleton; UPS dysfunction; neuroinflammation; high levels of calcium and iron, leading to neurotoxicity; neurotoxins (e.g., MPTP and rotenone); and α-syn aggregation in Lewy's bodies.