Fig. 1. Effect of Clothianidin treatment on encapsulation and melanization of a nylon thread implanted in the body cavity of larvae and adults of honey bee.

For each experimental condition, 3 replicates of 5 honey bees each were considered. Range (from minimum to maximum value), 1st and 3rd quartile and median are reported in the box-plots; the horizontal bars in the scatter-jittered plots represent the sample average; different letters denote significant differences. a Melanization in mature bee larvae (0 vs 0.01 ppm and 0 vs 0.05 ppm: Mann–Whitney U test: n₁ = 15, n₂ = 15, U = 0, adjusted, one tailed P < 0.001). b Encapsulation in mature bee larvae (0 vs 0.01 ppm and 0 vs 0.05 ppm: Mann–Whitney U test: n₁ = 15, n₂ = 15, U = 0, adjusted, one tailed P < 0.001). c DWV RNA copies recorded in experimental honey bee larvae (0 vs 0.01 ppm and 0 vs 0.05 ppm: Mann Whitney U test: n₁ = 15, n₂ = 15, U = 0, adjusted, one tailed P < 0.001; 0.01 vs 0.05 ppm: Mann–Whitney U test: n₁ = 15, n₂ = 15, U = 60, adjusted, one tailed P = 0.044). d Melanization in adult bees (Kruskal–Wallis: adj H = 70.17, df = 4, P < 0.001). e Encapsulation in adult bees (Kruskal–Wallis: adj H = 68.34, df = 4, P < 0.001). f DWV titer recorded in adult bees used for the implantation experiment (Mann–Whitney U test: n₁ = 15, n₂ = 15, U = 4, one tailed P < 0.001).