Table 1.

Factors that influence off-host larval tick questing behavior

Abiotic/biotic factors	Optimal for larval questing	Description
Humidity	≥80–85%	Larvae restrict questing activity to optimal relative humidity levels. Dry conditions will cause larvae to dehydrate.
Temperature	3–38°C	Ticks adapted to cold temperatures, such as I. ricinus, have been shown to commence in questing at temperatures as low as 3°C. While questing activity has been shown to be curtailed at ≥ 38°C.
Precipitation	Precipitation in late spring/early summer	Precipitation contributes to higher levels of larval questing by providing optimal humidity, milder temperatures, and lower saturation deficit.
Clustering	Larger clusters	Larger clusters reduce moisture loss and maximizes host attachment.
Photoperiod	Presence of light during appropriate photoperiod	Ticks commence in questing depending on the specific photoperiod of the species of tick.
Seasonality	Species dependent relationship between adaptive physiology and ecology	Fluctuation in climate, for a given region, dictate pronounce deviations in developmental maturation which create seasonal periods of questing.
Habitat	Sheltered site with optimal microclimate	Optimal habitats produce prime microclimate conditions for questing architecture.
Predation and natural enemies	Low predation	Predatory mites, ants, spiders, and carabid beetles.