Table 2.
Models (odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals) to assess the association between breastfeeding duration and individual, household, and area factors, with stunting in Mexican children aged 6–35 months (N = 2,089).
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bf duration (Ref. NBF) | |||||
| Any breastfeeding <6 months | 0.33 (0.13–0.81)* | 0.36 (0.15–0.90)* | 0.32 (0.13–0.81)* | 0.32 (0.13–0.78)* | 0.47 (0.24–0.94)* |
| Any breastfeeding ≥6 months | 0.60 (0.29–1.23) | 0.52 (0.24–1.13) | 0.46 (0.20–1.06) | 0.45 (0.20–0.99)* | 0.68 (0.37–1.24) |
| Individual factors | |||||
| Child | |||||
| Age (months) | 1.01 (0.99–1.03) | 1.01 (0.99–1.03) | 1.01 (0.99–1.03) | 1.02 (1.01–1.04)* | |
| Sex (Ref. Male) Female | 0.58 (0.38–0.87)* | 0.56 (0.37–0.85)** | 0.56 (0.37–0.85)** | 0.84 (0.63–1.13) | |
| Birthweight (Ref. Normal & High) | |||||
| Low | 3.05 (1.64–5.65)*** | 3.14 (1.71–5.78)*** | 2.91 (1.60–5.29)*** | 3.21 (2.15–4.79)*** | |
| Delivery mode (Ref. Vaginal) | |||||
| Cesarean-section | 0.84 (0.55–1.27) | 0.83 (0.54–1.28) | 0.82 (0.53–1.26) | 0.74 (0.53–1.01) | |
| Liquids ≠ than breastmilk ≤3 days postpartum (Ref. No) | |||||
| Yes | 0.80 (0.51–1.23) | 0.81 (0.53–1.25) | 0.87 (0.58–1.32) | 1.00 (0.73–1.37) | |
| Complementary foods <6 months (Ref. No) | |||||
| Yes | 1.28 (0.85–1.93) | 1.38 (0.91–2.10) | 1.38 (0.90–2.13) | 1.32 (0.97–1.80) | |
| Maternal | |||||
| Age (years) | 1.01 (0.97–1.05) | 1.01 (0.97–1.06) | 1.01 (0.97–1.06) | 1.01 (0.98–1.04) | |
| Employment (Ref. Not working) | |||||
| Part-time informal | 1.60 (0.67–3.80) | 1.76 (0.79–3.90) | 1.77 (0.84–3.72) | 1.19 (0.60–2.34) | |
| Part-time formal | 0.79 (0.39–1.58) | 0.88 (0.44–1.75) | 0.90 (0.45–1.83) | 0.90 (0.53–1.51) | |
| Full-time informal | 1.29 (0.57–2.94) | 1.62 (0.72–3.64) | 1.64 (0.72–3.73) | 1.43 (0.81–2.51) | |
| Full-time formal | 0.99 (0.38–2.56) | 1.12 (0.44–2.87) | 1.05 (0.42–2.65) | 0.93 (0.44–1.98) | |
| Education (Ref. High school) | |||||
| ≤ Primary | 1.80 (0.88–3.66) | 1.60 (0.78–3.26) | 1.62 (0.79–3.35) | 1.39 (0.85–2.28) | |
| Some secondary or secondary | 1.91 (1.08–3.31)* | 1.86 (1.04–3.33)* | 1.92 (1.08–3.45) | 1.41 (0.90–2.22) | |
| Some college or > | 1.02 (0.35–2.95) | 1.02 (0.36–2.95) | 1.04 (0.37–2.94) | 0.61 (0.26–1.44) | |
| Partner status (Ref. Yes) No | 0.88 (0.53–1.46) | 0.94 (0.57–1.54) | 0.95 (0.58–1.56) | 0.95 (0.60–1.52) | |
| Ethnicity (Ref. Non-indigenous) | |||||
| Indigenous | 1.30 (0.83–2.04) | 1.28 (0.81–2.04) | 1.26 (0.78–2.03) | 1.49 (1.07–2.06)* | |
| Parity (number of live births) | 1.06 (0.90–1.26) | 0.95 (0.79–1.15) | 0.95 (0.79–1.15) | 0.98 (0.86–1.13) | |
| BMI (Ref. Normal weight) | |||||
| Underweight | 0.69 (0.20–2.31) | 0.77 (0.21–2.79) | 0.76 (0.20–2.84) | 0.85 (0.36–2.03) | |
| Overweight | 0.61 (0.37–0.99)* | 0.64 (0.39–1.03) | 0.64 (0.40–1.04) | 0.68 (0.48–0.96)* | |
| Obesity | 0.62 (0.36–1.06) | 0.63 (0.37–1.08) | 0.65 (0.38–1.11) | 0.64 (0.43–0.96)* | |
| Height (cm) (Ref. 148.6-157.8) | |||||
| (short stature) ≤ 148.5 | 3.58 (2.21–5.80)*** | 3.59 (2.23–5.77)*** | 3.46 (2.14–5.61)*** | 3.16 (2.26–4.42)*** | |
| ≥ 157.9 | 0.73 (0.42–1.28) | 0.70 (0.40–1.22) | 0.71 (0.41–1.24) | 0.56 (0.36–0.87)* | |
| Diabetes (any type) (Ref. No) Yes | 2.31 (0.90–5.95) | 2.48 (1.00–6.17) | 2.50 (1.05–5.92)* | 1.34 (0.61–2.98) | |
| Current tobacco use (Ref. No) Yes | 1.97 (0.96–4.04) | 2.00 (0.97–4.13) | 1.88 (0.94–3.77) | 1.92 (1.13–3.26)* | |
| Household factors | |||||
| Number of children aged <5 years | 1.60 (1.09–2.35)* | 1.59 (1.09–2.30)* | 1.47 (1.11–1.97)** | ||
| Grandparent(s) cohabiting (Ref.No) | |||||
| Yes | 0.65 (0.42–1.01) | 0.66 (0.43–1.03) | 0.83 (0.57–1.21) | ||
| Socioeconomic status (Ref. Medium) | |||||
| Low | 1.08 (0.64–1.79) | 1.02 (0.61–1.70) | 1.05 (0.73–1.50) | ||
| High | 1.05 (0.54–2.04) | 0.99 (0.52–1.89) | 1.03 (0.63–1.67) | ||
| Food Security (Ref. Secure) | |||||
| Mild Insecure | 1.39 (0.79–2.45) | 1.36 (0.77–2.38) | 1.16 (0.76–1.76) | ||
| Moderate to Severe Insecure | 2.24 (1.23–4.07)** | 2.16 (1.20–3.90)* | 1.58 (1.02–2.46)* | ||
| Drainage system (Ref. Sewer) | |||||
| Septic | 0.94 (0.59–1.52) | 0.93 (0.54–1.59) | 0.93 (0.65–1.32) | ||
| Other | 1.14 (0.56–2.34) | 1.15 (0.51–2.59) | 1.06 (0.66–1.71) | ||
| Area factors | |||||
| Region/Area Density (Ref. N/U) | |||||
| North/Rural | 0.66 (0.22–2.01) | ||||
| Center/Urban | 0.92 (0.46–1.84) | Variance | |||
| Center/Rural | 0.85 (0.38–1.90) | 5.82–33 (SE 1.34–17) | |||
| Metropolitan/Urban | 1.55 (0.75–3.24) | ICC 1.77–33 | |||
| South/Urban | 0.88 (0.43–1.82) | (SE 4.06–18) | |||
| South/Rural | 1.44 (0.70–2.94) | ||||
Bf: breastfeeding, Ref: reference group, NBF: never breastfed, BMI: body mass index, N/U: north urban area, SE: standard error, ICC: intraclass correlation coefficient. Model 1 examined the association between breastfeeding and child stunting without adjusting for any of the covariates; models 2 through 4, sequentially, adjusted for individual, household, and area factors. Model 5 examined the association between breastfeeding and child stunting using a 2-level logistic approach. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001.