FIGURE 2.

Sensory neuropeptides released from these activated fibres exert important functions on the heart both locally (local efferent function) and via the bloodstream (systemic efferent function). CGRP, substance P and PACAP induce vasodilatation, plasma protein activation, and immune cell activation in the innervated area collectively called neurogenic inflammation, while inhibitory mediators, such as SST and PACAP, also released from the same fibres exert anti‐oedema, anti‐inflammatory and analgesic actions after getting into the systemic circulation even at distant parts of the body. PACAP and CGRP are multi‐functional peptides; they are potent vasodilators but inhibit inflammatory cells and have cytoprotective actions. The cardioprotective role of the capsaicin‐sensitive sensory nerves is likely to be related to the protective neuropeptides, but the mechanism of action needs further investigations. PACAP, pituitary adenylate cyclase‐activating polypeptide; SP, substance P; SST, somatostatin; TRPA1, transient receptor potential ankyrin 1; TRPV1, transient receptor potential vanilloid‐1