Table 3.
Changes observed in biomolecules in association with altered sleep including REMS. The numbers in parentheses show the cited article in the reference list
| Biomolecules studied | Effect on the biomolecules | Tissue sample | Associated disorders | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Caspase-3 | Activation of caspase-3 and downregulation of antiapoptotic gene | Brain | Oxidative DNA damage, ROS-induced carcinogenesis, neurodegeneration | [177, 178] |
| Reactive oxygen species (ROS) | ROS level increases, increased apoptosis | [179–181] | ||
| Na-K ATPase | Increased activity of Na-K ATPase and increased membrane excitability | [182, 183] | ||
| Corticosterone | Increased level | Plasma | [184] | |
| Leucocyte | Increased leucocyte count | Plasma | Higher titer of antinuclear antibodies, worsen immune functions, Early onset of Autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, modulate blood-brain barrier | [184] |
| Lymphocytes | Decreased number of lymphocytes | [184] | ||
| Natural killer (NK) cells | Increased number of NK cells | [185] | ||
| Cytokines | Elevation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6) | Plasma | [186] | |
| Complement C3 | Increased level | Serum | [184] | |
| Immunoglobulin-M (IgM) | Increased level | [184] | ||
| Immunoglobulin-A (IgA) | Decreased level | [187] | ||
| Nitric oxide | Higher expression of nitric oxide synthase and increased apoptosis in heart muscles | Heart ventricle | Myocardial ischemic-reperfusion injury, cardiac disorders | [175, 176] |
| Hexokinase | Increased activity | Brain | Decreased energy production, body weight loss, lethargy, skeletal muscular atrophy, anorexia | [188] |
| Glucose-6-phosphatase | Decreased activity | [188] | ||
| Glucose, glucose-6-phosphate, and pyruvate | Significant fall in their levels | Brain (cerebral frontal lobe) | [189] | |
| Succinate-CoQ reductase | Decreased in the activity | Brain (mitochondria of hippocampus and striatum) | [190] | |
| CoQH2-cytochrome c reductase | [190] | |||
| Cytochrome c oxidase | Brain (mitochondria of the prefrontal cortex, cerebral cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, and striatum) | [190] | ||
| Citrate synthase | Increased activity | Brain (prefrontal cortex) | [190] | |
| Leptin | Decreased level | Plasma | Anorexia, depression, and Alzheimer’s disease | [189, 191–193] |
| Gut microbiota | Found in blood | Plasma | Inflammation and damage in the blood-brain barrier | [194, 195] |
| Noradrenaline (NA) | Increased release of NA in different brain areas | Brain, plasma, urine, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) | Associated with most of the disease mentioned above | [4, 16, 19, 21, 96, 158, 166] |
| Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) | Increased level | Brain | [16] | |
| Acetylcholine | Decreased level | Brain | [96] |