Table 4.

Role of some external environmental stimuli in several inflammatory processes involving epigenetic regulation

Type of stimuli	Dose/time	Study model	Epigenetic signatures	Modification types	Reference
Endocrine disrupting chemicals exposure
Mono-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate	50 μM	RAW 264.7 Cells	SIRT activity and protein expression	↓	[117]
butyl benzyl phthalate	3 µg/ml	murine transgenerational asthma model	Global DNA methylation	↑	[118]
Bisphenol A	50 ng/kg diet 50 μg/kg diet 50 mg/kg diet	bone marrow-derived mast cells of adult mice	Global DNA methylation	↑	[119]
Bisphenol A	0.5 mg/kg	Sheep placentomes	DNA methyltransferase 3 A and histone deacetylase 1 expressions	↑	[120]
Smoking
Cigarette smoke exposure	250 or 1000 ng/ml	Lungs of C57Bl/6 mice	Histone 3 and histone 4 acetylation	↑	[147]
Cigarette smoke exposure	At least 5 cigarettes per day	Human bronchoalveolar lavage cells	5hmC differentially methylated positions	DMRs	[148]
Cigarette smoke extract	1% and 2.5%	Human macrophages	HDAC activity and protein levels	↓	[149]
Environmental tobacco smoke	1.0 mg/m(3)	Offspring of pregnant C57BL/6 mice	Global and IL13 DNA methylation	↓	[150]
Cigarette smoke exposure	Current smokers	Human peripheral blood	GPR15 methylation	↓	[151]
Cigarette smoke exposure	Active smokers	Human PBMCs	AHRR and GPR15 gene methylation	DMRs	[152]
Excessive alcohol drinking
Alcohol dependence	≥ 80 g of alcohol intake/day	Human PBMCs	HERC5 gene methylation	↑	[153]
Alcohol exposure	> 60 g/day	Human hepatocytes	miR-148a expression	↓	[155]
Acute alcohol binge	5 g/kg 50% alcohol/day	Small bowel in mice	miR-155 expression	↑	[156]
Alcohol exposure	25 mm alcohol	RAW 264.7 cells	miR-155 expression	↑	[157]
Alcohol exposure	32.4% alcohol‐derived calories	Mice Kupffer cells	miR-155 and HDAC11 expressions	↑	[158]
Alcohol exposure	5% ethanol	Mouse cerebellum	miR-155 expression	↑	[159]
Alcohol exposure	15% alcohol	Mouse brain tissue	miR-339-5p expression	↓	[160]
Sleep disturbances
REM sleep deprivation	Three sessions of 48 h each	Rat’s hippocampus	HAT/HDAC activity	↑	[162]
Sleep-disordered breathing	Apnea–hypopnea index	Human whole blood samples	DNA methylation-age acceleration	↑	[164]
Obstructive sleep apnea	With and without high levels of hsCRP (1.50 mg/dL)	Human whole blood samples	FOXP3 and IRF1 gene methylation	↑	[165]
Climate (air pollution)
PM2.5 exposure	Annual average exposition	Human whole blood samples	TNF-α methylation	↓	[176]
PM2.5 exposure	Continuously for 72 h	Human whole blood samples	TNF-α methylation	↓	[177]
PM2.5 exposure	10 μg/m(3)	Human whole blood samples	TLR2 gene methylation	↑	[178]
Traffic-related pollutants exposure	28 days cumulated exposure	Human whole blood samples	TLR2 gene methylation	↓	[179]
Traffic-related pollutants exposure	One-week exposure	Human whole blood samples	F3 gene methylation	↓	[180]
Urban PM exposure	One-week exposure	Mouse lung samples	Dnmt3a2 expression	↑	[181]
NO2 and PM2.5 exposure	17 years before cerebrovascular disease diagnosis	Human whole blood samples	DNA methylation of inflammatory pathways	DMRs	[182]
PM10 exposure	Mean of 1 and 14 days	Human peripheral blood samples	CD14 and TLR4 methylation levels	↓	[183]
PM and metal exposure	4 days of steel production work	Human peripheral blood samples	miR-302b, miR-200c and miR-30d expressions	↑	[184]
PM2.5 exposure	Two-week periods	Human whole blood samples	miR-21-5p, miR-187-3p, miR-146a-5p, miR-1-3p and miR-199a-5p expressions	↓	[185]
PM2.5 exposure	75 μg/ml	Human bronchial epithelial cell line	circRNA104250 and lncRNAuc001.dgp.1 expressions	↑	[186]
O3 exposure	0.4 ppm O3 for 2 h	Sputum samples	miR-132, miR-143, miR-145, miR-199a*, miR-199b-5p, miR-222, miR-223, miR-25, miR-424, and miR-582-5p expressions	↑	[187]

DMRs Differentially methylated regions