Table 1.

A multidimensional framework for understanding and investigating alignment ^a

Time	The temporal distance between the first and second part of a pair of behavior can be a short interval (e.g., simultaneous production or a split‐second delay) or a long interval (varying from one or multiple turns, several minutes, or even hours)
Sequence	The sequential relation between any pair of aligned behavior can vary from occurring within a certain sequence (e.g., the behavior occurs within the same trial, as indicated by the larger rectangles in the figure), to transcending such sequential boundaries
Meaning	For levels of behavior which convey meaning (e.g., lexical items or gestures), any pair of behavior can vary from conveying the same meaning or referent to conveying different meanings
Form	The two parts of a pair of behavior can vary from being exact copies, to having little or no overlap in form or shape
Modality	The two parts of a pair of behavior can be produced in the same modality (e.g., the two pair parts are both spoken sentences), but can also be produced in different modalities (e.g., the first pair part is a lexical phrase, and the second pair part an iconic gesture)

^aThe relationship between the two parts of a behavior pair can vary on five dimensions, as outlined in this table. For each dimension, we visualize two different relationships between instances of behavior—one with a solid arrow and one with a dashed arrow. For meaning, we use tangram figures to visualize the referent of speech and/or gestures (cf. Clark & Wilkes‐Gibbs, 1986; Holler & Wilkin, 2011).