. 2020 Jun 23;33(6):1166–1187. doi: 10.1111/jar.12758

TABLE 4.

Characteristics of the included studies

Author (year); country	Design	Participants	Technology/features of applications	Type of support	Support function
Group design studies
1. Davies et al. (2002a); USA	2 groups BSD	N = 12;	Automated multimedia	Task completion and	SS
		IQ = mean 62.6 (range 45–90; all except 1 < 70 WAIS‐R)	Scheduling system designed to operate on the Windows	Self‐regulation in time management
		4 F/8 M, age 19–46	CE palmtop computer platform
2. Davies et al. (2002b); USA	Beta study; 2 groups WSD	N = 10; IQ = 54.8 (SD 10.37; range 39–72; WAIS‐R)	Visual Assistant prototype	Complete vocational skills independently (pizza box assembly + software package)	SS
2. Davies et al. (2002b); USA	Beta study; 2 groups WSD	2 F/8 M, age 18–70	Visual Assistant prototype		SS
3. Davies et al. (2003a); USA	Pilot study with a WSD	N = 9; IQ average 65.1 (range 56–72)	ATM‐SIM is a multimedia training tool	Skill teaching by simulation (money ATM)	SLS
3. Davies et al. (2003a); USA	Pilot study with a WSD	4 F/5 M, age 25–58	ATM‐SIM is a multimedia training tool	Skill teaching by simulation (money ATM)	SLS
4. Davies et al. (2003b); USA	Two‐group, WSD (beta testing)	N = 40, mean IQ = 55.53 (SD 10.69, range 24–76)	Pocket PC palmtop computer platform	Decision making in vocational tasks	SS
4. Davies et al. (2003b); USA	Two‐group, WSD (beta testing)	17 F/23 M, age mean 29.38 (SD 10.97, range 18–54)	Pocket PC palmtop computer platform	Decision making in vocational tasks	SS
5. Padgett et al. (2006); USA	MPB	N = 5; FAS 4 > mild intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (mild: 55–69) 1 F/4 M, age 5–7	VR game	Skill teaching (fire safety skills)	SLS
6. Davies et al. (2010); USA	BSD two treatment conditions	N = 23; IQ = mean 54.32 (range 40–66). EG mean IQ = 52 (SD 8.39), CG mean IQ = 57.50 (SD 4.96).	Wayfinder (specially designed, cognitively accessible GPS‐based software prototype)	Facilitate independent bus travelling	SS
6. Davies et al. (2010); USA	BSD two treatment conditions	14 F/9 M, age 18–49		Facilitate independent bus travelling	SS
7. Stock et al. (2013); USA	n.r.	N = 26, average IQ = 56.1 (SD = 9.56; range 36–73) 14 F/12 M, age average 32.3 (SD 9.77; range 18–52);	Wayfinder (specialized GPS‐based system) + Pharos 600e smartphone	Facilitate independent bus travelling	SS
8. de Wit et al. (2015); NL	Uncontrolled feasibility study	N = 39; 29 CPP and 10 mild intellectual disability;	Web‐based program MPC	Enabling professional support in daily functioning	FRCP
8. de Wit et al. (2015); NL	Uncontrolled feasibility study	4 F/6 M, age 47.6 (SD 8.4)	Web‐based program MPC	Enabling professional support in daily functioning	FRCP
9. Kerkhof et al. (2017); NL	Participatory design and two pilots using pre‐ and post‐test design	N = 7; 1 ASD no intellectual disability, 3 moderate intellectual disability, 3 mild intellectual disability; ASD, epilepsy	Memory application on individual touch screens	Structure and support daily activities	SS
10. Fage et al. (2018); FR	Co‐design and pre‐ and post‐intervention assessment	N = 48; 29 ASD and 19 intellectual disability, intellectual disability IQ = 60.53 (SD 4.50) WISC‐IV	iPad + assistive applications and socio‐cognitive remediation applications	Assisting to perform classroom routines in mainstream classrooms and providing exercises for socio‐cognitive processes	SLS + SS
10. Fage et al. (2018); FR	Co‐design and pre‐ and post‐intervention assessment	10 F/ 9 M, age 14.23 (SD 0.29)			SLS + SS
Single‐case designs
11. Sigafoos et al. (2005); USA	Delayed MPB across subjects	N = 3; 2 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 50)	Portable Windows XP‐based Mercury MiniMerc™ computer + video	Skill teaching (popcorn in microwave)	SLS
11. Sigafoos et al. (2005); USA	Delayed MPB across subjects	3 M, age 34–36		Skill teaching (popcorn in microwave)	SLS
12. Cannella‐Malone et al. (2006); USA	MPB across subject with ATD	N = 6; 4 moderate intellectual disability, 2 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 51 and 69), ASD	Portable Windows XP‐based Mercury MiniMerc™ computer + instructional video	Skill teaching (setting table, putting away groceries)	SLS
12. Cannella‐Malone et al. (2006); USA	MPB across subject with ATD	1 F/5 M, age 27 and 36		Skill teaching (setting table, putting away groceries)	SLS
13. Van Laarhoven and Van Laarhoven‐Myers (2006); USA	Within‐subject adapted alternating treatment design	N = 3; 1 moderate intellectual disability, 2 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 51 and 52) 1 F/2 M, age 17–19	Laptop computer + video	Skill teaching (laundry, washing table and microwave pizza)	SLS
14. Sigafoos et al. (2007); AUS	MPB across subjects	N = 3; 2 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 69), ASD 3 M, age 27	Portable Windows XP‐based Mercury MiniMerc™ computer + video	Skill teaching (wash dishes)	SLS
15. Cihak and Schrader (2008); USA	ATD	N = 4; 2 severe intellectual disability, 1 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 50), ASD 4 M, age 16	Laptop computer + video	Skill teaching (preparing family packs and first aid kits, making copies and sending fax)	SLS
16. Hansen and Morgan (2008); USA	MBD across participants	N = 3; 2 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 55)	DVD and CD‐ROM instruction + computer	Skill teaching (purchase in grocery store)	SLS
16. Hansen and Morgan (2008); USA	MBD across participants	3 M, age 16–17	DVD and CD‐ROM instruction + computer	Skill teaching (purchase in grocery store)	SLS
17. Mechling and Gustafson (2008); USA	A‐ATD	N = 6; 4 moderate intellectual disability, 2 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 54 and 64), ASD 6 M, age 15–21	Portable DVD player	Task completion	SLS
18. Ayres et al. (2009); USA	MPB across behaviours and replicated across participants	N = 3; 2 n.r., 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 53). ASD	I Can!—Daily Living and Community Skills (Sandbox Learning Company, n.d.) software + computer	Skill teaching (setting table, making soup and a sandwich)	SLS
18. Ayres et al. (2009); USA	MPB across behaviours and replicated across participants	1 F/2 M, age 7–9		Skill teaching (setting table, making soup and a sandwich)	SLS
19. Mechling et al. (2009); USA	MPB across three cooking recipes	N = 3; 1 BF, 1 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 51), ASD 3 M, age 16–17	The Cyrano Communicator™ (Hewlett Packard iPAQ Pocket PC with pre‐installed software)	Task completion by self‐monitoring (cooking recipes)	SS
20. Van Laarhoven et al. (2009); USA	MPB across behaviours	N = 1; IQ = 52; 1p36 deletion syndrome	Video iPod™	Skill teaching by self‐instruction (cleaning bathroom, mopping floor and cleaning kennels)	SLS
20. Van Laarhoven et al. (2009); USA	MPB across behaviours	1 M, age 17	Video iPod™		SLS
21. Ayres and Cihak (2010); USA	MPB across behaviours	N = 3; 1 TBI, 1 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 51)	I Can!—Daily Living and Community Skills software program + computer	Skill teaching (setting table, making soup and a sandwich)	SLS
21. Ayres and Cihak (2010); USA	MPB across behaviours	1 F/2 M, age 15		Skill teaching (setting table, making soup and a sandwich)	SLS
22. Mechling and O’Brien (2010); USA	MPB across students and one bus route	N = 3; 1 moderate intellectual disability, 2 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 52 and 70); 1 PDD‐NOS 2 F/1 M, age 19–20	Laptop computer + touch screen	Skill teaching (public bus transportation)	SLS
23. Taber‐Doughty et al. (2010); USA	ATD	N = 4; 2 moderate intellectual disability, 2 mild intellectual disability, 1 hearing impairment	Computer contained within a secure box + single video camera. Sensors, speakers and microphones, two‐way video monitor.	Task completion at home by support of telecare staff	FRCP
23. Taber‐Doughty et al. (2010); USA	ATD	1 F/3 M, age 42–47		Task completion at home by support of telecare staff	FRCP
24. Van Laarhoven et al. (2010); USA	A‐ATD	N = 2; 1 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 52) WISC 2 M, age 13–14	Laptop computer + video +PowerPoint presentation	Skill teaching (making microwave pasta and folding laundry)	SLS
25. Mechling and Savidge (2011); USA	MPB across three sets of novel structured work tasks	N = 3; 2 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 54), ASD/ADHD 1 F/2 M, age 14	Cyrano Communicator™ (Pidion BM−150R with pre‐installed software by One Write Company).	Task completion and transition (shoebox tasks and navigation)	SS
26. Taber‐Doughty et al. (2011); USA	ATD	N = 3; 2 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 61–72)	8‐G iPad Nanos	Skill teaching (cooking)	SLS
26. Taber‐Doughty et al. (2011); USA	ATD	3 F, age 12–13	8‐G iPad Nanos	Skill teaching (cooking)	SLS
27. Bereznak et al. (2012); USA	MPB across behaviours replicated across participants	N = 3; 2 < IQ 40, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 68), ASD	iPhone 3 G + iPhone app for instructional videos	Skill teaching by self‐monitoring (using washing machine, making noodles and using copy machine)	SLS
27. Bereznak et al. (2012); USA	MPB across behaviours replicated across participants	3 M, age 15–18	iPhone 3 G + iPhone app for instructional videos		SLS
28. Van Laarhoven et al. (2012); USA	Modified pre‐ and post‐test control group design	N = 6; 1 no intellectual disability, 1 BF, 3 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 65), ASD	DVD	Maintenance vocational skill (food preparation)	SLS
28. Van Laarhoven et al. (2012); USA	Modified pre‐ and post‐test control group design	1 F/5 M, age 16	DVD	Maintenance vocational skill (food preparation)	SLS
29. Alexander et al. (2013); USA	MPB across participants	N = 7; 2 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 57 and 64), ASD	iPad 2	Skill teaching (sorting mail)	SLS
29. Alexander et al. (2013); USA	MPB across participants	1 F/6 M, age 15–18	iPad 2	Skill teaching (sorting mail)	SLS
30. Bouck et al. (2014); USA	ATD	N = 3; 1 severe intellectual disability, 1 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 57), ASD	iPad2 + Upad lite app to create recipes	Task completion (cooking)	SLS
30. Bouck et al. (2014); USA	ATD	2 F/1 M, age 13–15	iPad2 + Upad lite app to create recipes	Task completion (cooking)	SLS
31. Campillo et al. (2014); SPA	AB	N = 3; 1 severe intellectual disability, 1 n.r., 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 58)	Samsung Q1 Ultra + Tic‐Tac software	Make time visual	SS
		ASD
		1 F/2 M, age 19–29
32. Burckley et al. (2015); USA	MPB across setting	N = 1; mild intellectual disability IQ = 54, PDD‐NOS;	iPad 2 + Book Creator software	Skill teaching (shopping)	SLS
32. Burckley et al. (2015); USA	MPB across setting	1 F, age 18	iPad 2 + Book Creator software	Skill teaching (shopping)	SLS
33. McMahon et al. (2015); USA	A‐ATD	N = 6; 1 moderate intellectual disability, 5 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 51–65), 1 ASD 2 F/4 M, age 18–24	Google Maps on mobile device (iPhone/iPad) + Navigator Heads Up Display app on mobile device (= augmented reality navigation app)	Skill teaching + self‐monitoring (travelling and navigation)	SS
34. Smith et al. (2015); USA	MPB across participants	N = 3; 1 n.r., 2 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability, ASD	Mobile device + iSkills app	Skill teaching + self‐initiation (changing computer memory)	SLS
34. Smith et al. (2015); USA	MPB across participants	3 M, age 15–16	Mobile device + iSkills app	Skill teaching + self‐initiation (changing computer memory)	SLS
35. Spriggs et al. (2015); USA	MPB across participants	N = 4; 1 n.r., 3 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 50–67), ASD, PDD‐NOS, ADHD	iPad + My Pictures Talk™ application	Independent task transition	SLS
35. Spriggs et al. (2015); USA	MPB across participants	1 F/3 M, age 17–19	iPad + My Pictures Talk™ application	Independent task transition	SLS
36. Goo et al. (2016); USA	MPB across students	N = 4; 2 moderate intellectual disability, 2 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 55)	HP Pavilion g series laptop	Skill teaching (purchasing)	SLS
36. Goo et al. (2016); USA	MPB across students	4 M, age 18	HP Pavilion g series laptop	Skill teaching (purchasing)	SLS
37. Smith et al. (2016); USA	MPB across settings embedded in a MPB across participants	N = 4; 2 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 62) BIF (IQ = 72, ASD, SLI	iPhone 4s + 20 application icons + videos	Skill teaching by self‐instruction (independent initiation self‐instruction daily living and vocational tasks	SLS
37. Smith et al. (2016); USA	MPB across settings embedded in a MPB across participants	4 M, age 15–19	iPhone 4s + 20 application icons + videos		SLS
38. Cavkaytar et al. (2017); TR	MPB across participants	N = 3; 3 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 68) 3 F, age 19–32	Nokia BH−503 stereo Bluetooth headset + iPad I tablet computer	Skill teaching by combining remote professional and self‐support	SLS + FRCP
39. Cullen, Alber‐Morgan, et al. (2017); USA	MPB across tasks; MPB across participants	N = 3; 1 no intellectual disability, 1 n.r., 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 74) 3 M, age 22	iPad + My Pics Talk app	Task completion by self‐direction (tasks in integrated employment settings)	SS
40. Cullen, Simmons‐Reed, et al. (2017); USA	MPB across participants	N = 3; 2 no intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 70) 3 M, age 20–24	iPad 4 + My Pics app	Task completion by self‐direction (cleaning)	SLS
41. Douglas et al. (2018); USA	MPB across participants and replicated across conditions	N = 4; 3 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 56) WISC‐IV	iPad 2 + Photo Grocery List	Creating a shopping list (after determining low or almost empty items)	SLS
41. Douglas et al. (2018); USA	MPB across participants and replicated across conditions	4 M, age 11–14	iPad 2 + Photo Grocery List		SLS
42. Golish et al. (2018); USA	Double‐baseline case study design	N = 3; 1 > mild intellectual disability and 1 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 64) WAIS III	iPad + visual timer	Make time visual	SS
42. Golish et al. (2018); USA	Double‐baseline case study design	3 M, age 32–55	iPad + visual timer	Make time visual	SS
43. Orum Çattik and Ergenekon (2018); TR	MPB across participants	N = 3; 1 moderate intellectual disability, 2 mild intellectual disability 3 M, age 15–16	Bug in ear/tablet computer target skills	Skill teaching (paying electric bill, using tram)	FRCP + SLS
44. Price et al. (2018); USA	MPB across participants and settings	N = 4; 1 ASD, 1 DS, 2 mild intellectual disability 3 F/1 M, age 17–19	Smartphone + Google Maps app	Facilitate independent bus travelling	SS
45. Shepley et al. (2018); USA	MPB across participants	N = 4; 1 moderate intellectual disability, 3 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 51–57), ASD	iPod Touch + My Pictures Talk app	Task completion by self‐instruction skills (set the table, cook receipt, make a cup of punch and snack task)	SLS
45. Shepley et al. (2018); USA	MPB across participants	2 F/2 M, age 12–14	iPod Touch + My Pictures Talk app		SLS
46. Van Laarhoven et al. (2018); USA	ATD	N = 4; 1 n.r., 1 no intellectual disability, 1 moderate intellectual disability, 1 mild intellectual disability (IQ = 62), seizure disorder	iPad + the Go Talk Now app by Attainment + the HP Slate PowerPoint	Skill teaching (prepare conference room)	SS
46. Van Laarhoven et al. (2018); USA	ATD	2 F/2 M, age 15–18		Skill teaching (prepare conference room)	SS

Design: (A) ATD, (adapted) alternating treatment design; BSD, between‐subjects design; MBD/MPBD, multiple‐baseline/multiple‐probe baseline design; SSI, semi‐structured interview; WSD, within‐subjects design. Participants: ASD, autism spectrum disorder; CPP, chronic psychiatric patients; CG/EG, control group/experimental group; FAS, foetal alcohol syndrome; BIF, borderline intellectual functioning; SLI, speech language impairment; and TBI, traumatic brain injury. SS, self‐support; SLS, support learning skill; FRCP, facilitate remote contact professional.