Table 2.
The relationship between long-term exposure to pollution and the probability of dying from COVID-19 in the MCMA.
| Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | |
|---|---|---|---|
| PM2.5 (μg/m3) | 0.0424⁎⁎⁎ | 0.0733⁎⁎⁎ | 0.0571⁎⁎⁎ |
| [0.0143] | [0.0096] | [0.0093] | |
| Municipal-level covariates included | No | Yes | Yes |
| Individual-level covariates included | No | No | Yes |
| N | 196,273 | 196,273 | 196,273 |
| Municipalities | 76 | 76 | 76 |
| Pseudo-R2 | 0.006 | 0.027 | 0.265 |
Notes: The dependent variable is a dummy equal to one if an individual diagnosed with COVID-19 dies and zero otherwise. Estimations are done using a probit model. Cluster robust standard errors at the municipal-level are shown in brackets. Municipal-level covariates are: Population density, population, density of hospital beds, percentage of population without access to health care, percentage of population with moderate or severe food insecurity, and percentage of labor force with jobs that can be done from home. Individual-level covariates are: gender, age and age squared, obesity, diabetes, hypertension, smoking status, and day in which symptoms started. MCMA is comprised of 76 municipalities in the states of Hidalgo, Mexico, and Mexico City. All municipalities (16) from Mexico City are part of the MCMA and are included in this sample.
p < 0.01.