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Non-angiogenic effects of the VEGF–VEGFR interaction in cancer cells. VEGF-mediated autocrine-paracrine loops directly influence and promote tumor cell survival, proliferation and invasion. VEGF(R): vascular endothelial growth factor (receptor); EMT: epithelial-mesenchymal transition; MAPK/ERK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase; PI3K/Akt: Phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt
