Table 2.
Mycotoxin contamination of infant formula, milk, and human breast milk originating from sub-Saharan Africa.
| Country | Toxin Type | Food Type | Sample Number | Sample Preparation | Analytical Method | LOD/LOQ (µg/kg) | % +ve | Range (µg/kg) | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Burkina Faso | AFB1 | Infant formula | 199 | IAC | HPLC/FD | 0.3/1 | 83.9 | 0–87.4 | [73] |
| FB1+B2 | 5/20 | 1.5 | 0–672.9 | ||||||
| OTA | 0.05/0.1 | 7.5 | 0–3.2 | ||||||
| Cameroon | AFM1 | Breast milk | 62 | LLE | HPLC/FD | NA | 5 | 0.005–0.625 | [94] |
| Kenya | AFM1 | Breast milk | 165 | NA | ELISA | 0.005 | 74.6 | <LOD–0.0475 | [96] |
| AFM1 | 39 | NA | HPLC/FD | NA | 15.4 | 0.0005–0.1527 | |||
| AFM1 | Milk | 128 | NA | ELISA | NA | 100 | 0.002–2.56 | [44] | |
| Nigeria | AFM1 | Breast milk | 100 | IAC | HPLC/FD | 0.010 | 82 | 0.057 * | [92] |
| BEA | Breast milk | 75 | QuEChERS | LC-MS/MS | 0.006/0.011 | 56 | <LOQ–0.019 | [90] | |
| ENN B | 0.004/0.009 | 9 | <LOQ-0.009 | ||||||
| OTA | 0.048/0.096 | 15 | <LOQ | ||||||
| AFM1 | 0.043/0.087 | 1 | <LOQ | ||||||
| AFM1 | Breast milk | 120 | LLE | HPLC/FD | NA | 14 | 2–187 | [45] | |
| AFM1 | Breast milk | 50 | IAC | HPLC/FD | 0.01/0.05 | 82 | 0.004–0.092 | [91] | |
| AFM1 | Breast milk | 28 | NA | TLC | 2 | 18 | LOD–4.0 | [95] | |
| AFM1 | Breast milk | 40 | NA | HPLC/FD | 1 | 77 | 1–601 | [97] | |
| BEA | Milk | 36 | Dilute and shoot | LC-MS/MS | 0.008 | 27.8 | 0.04–0.4 | [74] | |
| ZEN | 0.12 | 2.8 | 0.6 | ||||||
| 3-NPA | Infant formula | 17 | Dilute and shoot | LC-MS/MS | 0.8 | 11.8 | 19.6–22.5 | [74] | |
| ΣAF | NA | 5.9 | 4.6 | ||||||
| ALT | 0.4 | 5.9 | 0.7 | ||||||
| CIT | 0.16 | 5.9 | 3.6 | ||||||
| BEA | 0.008 | 17.6 | 0.1–13.4 | ||||||
| DON | 1.2 | 11.8 | 27.2–36 | ||||||
| HT-2 | 3.2 | 5.9 | 18.8 | ||||||
| MON | 1.6 | 11.8 | 10–16 | ||||||
| NIV | 1.2 | 11.8 | 18.9–22 | ||||||
| T-2 | 0.4 | 11.8 | 0.8–119 | ||||||
| Nigeria | ZEN | Infant formula | 17 | Dilute and shoot | LC-MS/MS | 0.12 | 23.5 | 0.4–5.4 | [74] |
| AFM1 | Breast milk | 22 | SPE | LC-MS/MS | 0.002/0.004 | 18.2 | 0.002 | [75] | |
| AME | 0.0005/0.001 | 95.5 | 0.0005–0.0117 | ||||||
| BEA | 0.0001/0.0003 | 100 | 0.001–0.012 | ||||||
| DCIT | 0.014/0.028 | 27.3 | 0.014–0.0597 | ||||||
| ENN B | 0.0007/0.0014 | 72.7 | 0.0007–0.0101 | ||||||
| ENN B1 | 0.0005/0.001 | 22.7 | 0.0005–0.0012 | ||||||
| OTA | 0.002/0.004 | 63.6 | 0.002–0.0676 | ||||||
| OTB | 0.0025/0.005 | 9.1 | 0.0053–0.0067 | ||||||
| STG | 0.0005/0.001 | 4.6 | 0.0012 | ||||||
| Sierra Leone | OTA | Breast milk | 113 | NA | HPLC/FD | 0.2 | 35 | 0.2–337 | [98] |
| AFB1 | 0.05 | 18 | 0.05–372 | ||||||
| AFM1 | 0.2 | 31 | 0.2–99 | ||||||
| AFM2 | 0.07 | 62 | 0.07–77.5 | ||||||
| AFG1 | 0.005 | 19 | 0.005–139 | ||||||
| AFG2 | 0.003 | 22 | 0.003–366 | ||||||
| Aflatoxicol | 0.05 | 36 | 0.005–50.9 | ||||||
| Sudan | AFM1 | Breast milk | 94 | LLE | HPLC/FD | 0.013 | 54 | 0.007–2.561 | [99] |
| Tanzania | AFM1 | Breast milk | 143 | NA | HPLC/FD | 0.005 | 100 | 0.01–0.55 | [93] |
| FB1 | Breast milk | 131 | LLE, SAX | HPLC/FD | 5.5/19.5 | 44 | 6.570–47.105 | [100] |
* Mean concentration of toxins in samples; AFB1, G1, G2, M1, M2 = aflatoxin B1, G1, G2, M1, M2; ΣAF = AFB1+B2;3-NPA = 3-nitropropionic acid; ALT = alternariol; AME = alternariol methyl ether; BEA = beauvericin; CIT = citrinin; DCIT = dihydrocitrinone; DON = deoxynivalenol; ELISA = enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; ENN B, B1 = enniatin B, B1; FB1, B2 = fumonisin B1, B2; HPLC/FD = high-performance liquid chromatography/fluorescence detector; HT-2 = HT-2 toxin, IAC = immunoaffinity column; LC-MS/MS = liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry; LLE = liquid–liquid extraction; LOD = limit of detection; LOQ = limit of quantification; MON = moniliformin; NA = not available; NIV = nivalenol; OTA = ochratoxin A; OTB = ochratoxin B; SAX = strong anion exchange; SPE = solid phase extraction; STG = sterigmatocystin; T-2 = T-2 toxin; TLC = thin layer chromatography; ZEN = zearalenone.