Table 4.
Naturally occurring organic compounds/materials that have been evaluated as contact-based toxins *.
| Compound | References |
|---|---|
| Formic acid | [55,56] |
| Methyl benzoate analogs | [68] |
| Clove powder | [63] |
| Eugenol | [63] |
| Eugenol acetate | [63] |
| Beta-caryophyllene | [63] |
| Sweet wormwood | [67] |
| Camphor | [67] |
| Linalool | [67] |
| Cineole | [67] |
| α-Terpineol | [67] |
| L-(-)-Borneol | [67] |
| Decylamine | [57] |
| Dodecylamine | [57] |
| Mint oil | [60] |
| 2-Tridecanone | [56] |
| Undecane | [56] |
| Batrachotoxinin A | [58] |
| Pumiliotoxin 237A ** | [58] |
| (5E, 9E) 3-Butyl-5-propylindolizidine 223AB | [58] |
| Decahydroquinoline cis-223F | [58] |
| Pseudophrynaminol | [58] |
| Spiropyrrolizidine oxime | [58] |
| (+)-Gephyrotoxin | [58] |
| 5,8-Disubstituted indolizidine 205A | [58] |
| 5,8-Disubstituted indolizidine 235B | [58] |
| Octahydrohistrionicotoxin 291A | [58] |
| 2-Methyl-6-undecylpiperidine | [58] |
| Pumiliotoxin 267C | [58] |
| Batrachotoxin | [58] |
| Histrionicotoxin | [58] |
| Nicotine | [58] |
| Pumiliotoxin 323A | [58] |
| Pumiliotoxin 251D | [58] |
| Allopumiliotoxin 267A | [58] |
| Pumiliotoxin 307A | [58] |
| Batrachotoxin | [58] |
| Octahydrohistrionicotoxin 291A | [58] |
| Allodihydrohistrionicotoxin 285A | [58] |
| Histrionicotoxin 259A | [58] |
| Pumiliotoxin 267C | [58] |
| Pumiliotoxin 251D | [58] |
| Cinnamon leaf essential oil | [69] |
| trans-cinnamaldehyde | [69] |
| allyl isothiocyanate | [61] |
| 3-butenyl isothiocyanate | [61] |
| 3-(methylthio)propyl isothiocyanate | [61] |
| 2-phenylethyl isothiocyanate | [61] |
| Cupressus nootkatensis essential oil | [59] |
| Acorus calamus powder | [64] |
| α-Asarone | [64] |
| α-Asarone | [64] |
| Soil in the rhizosphere of Viburnum odoratissimum | [70] |
| Soil containing cinnamon leaf debris | [62] |
*: In some studies, the contact and fumigation toxicities of test compounds/materials were not well separated due to the experimental design. Those compounds/materials were not included in the table. For example, in studies that examined the biological activity of essential oils of Cinnamomum camphora, Cinnamomum glaucescens, Cinnamomum tamala, Amomum subulatum, and Aegle mamelos from Nepal, a test compound/material was sprayed onto a filter paper at the bottom of a beaker, and fire ant workers were transferred into the beaker, which was then sealed with parafilm. The mortality of fire ants was recorded after 24 h. Apparently, both contact and fumigation toxicities contributed to the observed mortality [65,66,71]. **: The number after name is molecular weight and the letter after number is used to differentiate isomers.