Table 1.
Study characteristics.
| First Author, Year | Type of Study | Target Population | % Female | Recruitment | Inclusion | N | Intervention | Additional Support | Intervention Duration | Primary Endpoint | Outcome Measure | Country |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Amorim 2019 | RCT | Adults (18–65 years) | 50% | via clinic |
Chronic low back pain: - mechanical LBP for over 12 weeks |
68 | 1. Intervention group: Mobile web app; 2. Control group: Information booklet and staying active |
YES: After the first face-to-face coaching session, the health coach contacted participants fortnightly and information booklet + Fitbit tracker | not specified | 6 months | Pain NRS | Australia |
| Bloedt 2018 | Randomized pragmatic trial (observational study) | Women (18–34 years) | 100% | via research institution |
Menstrual pain (cramping): - being diagnosed with dysmenorrhea |
221 | 1. Intervention group: AKUD App with acupressure features | No: Usual care | not specified | 6 months (6 menstrual cycles) | Pain NRS | Germany |
| Chhabra 2018 | RCT | Adults (>18 years) | n/a | via clinic |
Chronic low back pain: - mechanical LBP >12 weeks with or without radicular symptoms |
93 | 1. Intervention group: Snapcare App; 2. Control group: Usual care with written prescription of medication and physical activity |
No: Usual care (Written prescription of medication and physical activity) | 12 weeks | 12 weeks | Pain NRS | India |
| Choi 2019 | RCT | Adults (>20 years) | 68% | via clinic |
Frozen shoulder: - shoulder pain for at least one month |
84 | 1. Intervention group: Exercise app, including feedback, motivation, reminder; 2. Control group: Self-exercise group |
YES: both groups were prescribed nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (celecoxib) for two months, and educated and encouraged to perform self-exercise | not specified | 12 weeks | Pain VAS | Korea |
| Clement 2018 | retrospective analysis of the user database | Adults (>18 years) | 49% | via online channels (Facebook, Google Ads, company home page) |
Low back pain: - declaration of medical treatment of back pain |
1055 | 1. Intervention group: Updated 1.4 version of the Kaia App featuring physiotherapy, mindfulness, and education | No | not specified | 24 weeks | Pain NRS | Germany |
| Goebel 2019 | Observational study | Adults (age not reported) | 87% | via online channels (clinic website, social media, newsletters) |
Migraine: - suffering from migraine or headaches |
1464 | 1. Intervention group: Migraine app with medication reminder, expert chats, relaxation, education, couching | No | not specified | max. 12 months (no primary endpoint defined) | Pain VAS | Germany |
| Guetin 2016 | Observational study | Patients (7–88 years) | 79% | via clinic | Different chronic pain conditions | 53 | 1. Intervention group: Music-care app receptive music intervention (max. 7 sessions) | No | not specified | After use of app (min. 1 session and max. 7 sessions) | Pain VAS | France |
| Guillory 2015 | Pilot RCT (Observational study) | Adults (18–80 years) | 75% | Via clinic |
Chronic non-cancer pain: - pain on most days for >3 months |
82 | 1. Intervention group: Pain tracking app usage + twice daily text messages reminder | YES- daily reminder to use the app plus twice-daily supportive text messages for encouragement | 4 weeks | 4 weeks | Pain NRS | United States |
| Huber 2017 | retrospective study | Adults (mean age of 33.9) | 58% | via online channels (FB, Google ads, company homepage) |
Unspecific low back pain: - declaration of medical treatment of back pain |
180 | 1. Intervention group: Kaia mobile app that digitalizes multidisciplinary pain treatment | NO | not specified | 12 weeks | Pain NRS | Germany |
| Irvine 2015 | RCT (Comparison App vs. Control) | Adults (18–65 years) | 60% | via online channels (FB, Google ads, company homepage) |
Non-specific low back pain: - low back pain within the past 3 months |
597 | 1. Intervention group: FitBack app; 2. Control group: Usual care with reminder E-mails; 3. Alternative care group: 8 E-mails with link to resources |
YES: Weekly E-Mail reminder | not specified | 16 weeks | Pain intensity (1–7) | United States |
| Jamison 2016 | Observational study | Adults (>18 years) | 64% | via clinic |
chronic pain: - chronic pain for >6 months |
90 | 1. Intervention group: Pain coping app + Fitbit | No: only technical support was offered | 12 weeks | 12 weeks | Brief pain inventory (BPI) -> Pain intensity (0–10) |
United States |
| Kravitz 2018 | RCT | Adults (18–75 years) | 47% | via research institutions |
CMSP: - musculo-skeletal pain for >6 weeks at the time of screening |
215 | 1. Intervention group: Mobile health app (choice of e.g., drug or alternative treatments); 2. Control group: TAU + self-management booklet |
YES: Reminder phone calls or e-mail + self-management booklet | not specified | 48 weeks | Pain intensity (PROMIS 3a short form) (0–100) | United States |
| Kristjánsdóttir 2013 | RCT | Women (>18 years) | 100% | via clinic |
CWP: - having suffered from CWP for more than 6 months |
140 | 1. Intervention group: Smartphone intervention with diaries and daily feedback; 2. Control group: Informational website with self-help material |
YES: Access to an informational website with self-help pain-management material | 4 weeks | 4 weeks | Pain VAS | Norway |
| Lee 2017 | RCT | Adult office worker (25–35 years) | 45% | via research intuition |
Chronic neck pain: - pain for more than 6 months |
20 | 1. Intervention group: App with self-feedback for exercises; 2. Control group: Brochure and one education session on care their neck pain |
YES: Both groups received text messages once a week about caring for their pain | not specified | 8 weeks | Pain VAS | Korea |
| Lo 2018 | Observational study | Adults (18–65 years) | 25% | via homepage invitation of clinic |
Chronic neck and back pain: - pain within the past 3 months |
161 | 1. Intervention group: Artificial intelligence (AI) embedded smartphone app | No: But contact function via in-app messaging function | not specified | 4 weeks | Pain NRS | China |
| Mollard 2018 | Pilot study two group experimental design | Adults (>18 years) | n/a | via clinic |
rheumatoid arthritis (RA): - actively seeing a rheumatology provider at the researchers’ university rheumatology clinic |
36 | 1. Intervention group: Live with Arthritis app to monitor progression of rheumatoid arthritis inflammation using optical imaging; 2. Control group: TAU |
No | not specified | 6 months | Pain VAS | United States |
| Rini 2015 | RCT | Adults (>18 years) | 81% | via research institution |
Osteoarthritis pain: - confirmed radiographically (Kellgren & Lawrence grade ≥ 2, with pain in the affected joint); - Osteoarthritis pain pain > 3 months |
113 | 1. Intervention group: PainCOACH app including coping skills training, guided instructions, individualized feedback, interactive feedback and demonstrations; 2. Control group: Assessment only |
YES: Brief regular phone calls phoned to encourage continued use of the program | 11 weeks | 11 weeks | Pain (AIMS2) ->pain in the prior month (1 = severe –5 = none) | United States |
| Shebib 2019 | RCT | Adults (>18 years) | 41% | via participating employers across 12 locations in the US |
Unspecific low back pain: - pain for at least 6 weeks in the past 12 months |
177 | 1. Intervention group: App including personal coaching in a team to provide peer support; 2. Control group: Three digital education articles from the intervention + TAU |
YES: Intervention participants received a tablet and two Bluetooth wearable motion-sensors to be placed along the lower back and torso during the in-app exercise therapy + TAU | 12 weeks | 12 weeks | Pain VAS | United States |
| Skrepnik 2017 | RCT | Adults (30–80 years) | 50% | via selected private community-based practices |
Knee Osteoarthritis: - knee OA whom the physician investigator decided to treat with one 6-mL injection of hylan G-F 20 |
211 | 1. Intervention group: App “OA GO” including motivational messages, pain and mood tracking; 2. Control group: regular follow-up + wearable activity monitor |
YES: Regular follow-ups as per standard-of-care following Hylan G-F 20 treatment + wearable activity monitor | 90 days | 90 days | Pain NRS | United States |
| Suso-Ribera 2018 | Feasibility Study | Adults (18–65 years) | 53% | via clinic |
Heterogenous chronic pain: - pain for more than 6 months prior to the study |
38 | 1. Intervention group: Ecological momentary assessment (EMA) monitoring app with protocol for pain, mood and medication (e.g., side effects) | YES: Weekly phone calls to assess recalled pain intensity and mood | 30 days | 30 days | Brief Pain Inventory (BPI) -> Pain NRS | Spain |
| Toelle 2019 | RCT | Adults (18–65 years) | 70% | via clinic |
Unspecific low back pain: - non-specific low back pain; - pain had to be ongoing for the last 6 weeks up to 12 months |
101 | 1. Intervention group: Kaia App including modules: (1) education, (2) physiotherapy, and (3) relaxation; 2. Control group: Six face-to-face sessions of standard physiotherapy once a week + weekly E-mails with online resources |
No | 12 weeks | 12 weeks | Pain NRS | Germany |
| Yang 2019 | RCT | Adults (>18 years) | 50% | via clinic |
Chronic low back pain: - confirmed diagnosis of chronic low back pain (>3 months) by physicians; - no musculo-skeletal origins |
8 | 1. Intervention group: Self- management app (Pain Care); 2. Control group: Physiotherapy |
YES: Physiotherapy | 4 weeks | 4 weeks | Pain VAS | China |
Abbreviations: NRS = Numeric Rating Scale; RCT = randomized controlled trial; VAS = Visual Analog Scale; OA = osteoarthritis; TAU = treatment as usual; AKUD= acupressure against dysmenorrhea; LBP = low back pain; FB = Facebook; PROMIS = Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System; n/a = data not available; CMSP = chronic musculoskeletal pain; CWP = chronic widespread pain.