Figure 3.

Scheme of uremic toxins affecting different regulatory steps of cardiovascular calcification. For details, we refer to the text. In red are shown the inducers of cardiovascular calcification. BMP2—bone morphogenetic protein 2; Ca—calcium; ECM—extracellular matrix; FGF2—fibroblast growth factor 2; IL-1β—interleukin-1 beta; IL-8—interleukin-8; IS—indoxyl sulphate; P—phosphate; PTH—parathyroid hormone; TNF-α—tumor necrosis factor-alpha; VCAM-1—vascular cell adhesion molecule-1; VSMC—vascular smooth muscle cell.