Table 1.

Advantages and disadvantages of glioblastoma models.

Model	Advantages	Limitations
Genetically Engineered Mice [80,81,82]	Investigation of phenotypic consequences of GB progression (e.g., tissue invasion)	Lack of clinical validation Difficulties in reproducing human tumor heterogeneity Expensive and time consuming
Mouse embryonic brains [47,48]	Feasibility to investigate immune interactions	Difficulties in assessing clinical relevance Technical issues due to in utero electroporation
Human stem cells [83,84,85]	Possibility to investigate human GB onset Easiness in experimental standardization	Absence of fundamental physiological components (e.g., immune and endothelial cells)
Human cerebral organoids [46,77]	Assessment of human GB development, microenvironmental interactions in a 3D context Possibility to co-culture cancer cells with healthy neuronal cells	Lack of fundamental physiological components (e.g., immune and endothelial cells)