Table 4.

Odds ratio from multivariable ordinal regression models showing the association of biological- and social-independent variables measured in Round-I with the physical, cognitive and language development measured in Round-II.

Characteristics	Physical development		Cognitive development		Language development
	Stunting status(c)		Mathematical skill(d)		Reading skill(e)		Writing skill(f)
	Odds ratio	95% CI	Odds ratio	95% CI	Odds ratio	95% CI	Odds ratio	95% CI
Age of the children (in years)
1®
2	1.32*	(1.14–1.52)	1.54*	(1.36–1.74)	1.57*	(1.40–1.78)	1.32*	(1.16–1.50)
3	1.39*	(1.21–1.60)	2.21*	(1.95–2.50)	2.17*	(1.92–2.45)	1.62*	(1.42–1.84)
4	1.74*	(1.49–2.03)	2.91*	(2.55–3.33)	2.92*	(2.56–3.33)	1.84*	(1.60–2.11)
Sex of the children
Male®
Female	0.80*	(0.73–0.88)	0.89*	(0.82–0.97)	1.03	(0.95–1.12)	1.05	(0.97–1.15)
Stunting status of children
Stunted®
Not stunted	1.75*	(1.59–1.93)	1.36*	(1.25–1.48)	1.30*	(1.19–1.41)	1.36*	(1.25–1.48)
Place of cooking in household
In living area®
Not in living area	1.06	(0.95–1.19)	0.99	(0.89–1.10)	1.04	(0.94–1.15)	1.03	(0.93–1.15)
Type of cooking fuel in household
Solid fuel®
Clean fuel	0.89	(0.73–1.07)	0.84*	(0.72–0.98)	0.87	(0.74–1.01)	1.19*	(1.01–1.40)
Household sanitation condition
Poor®
Average	1.02	(0.91–1.14)	1.19*	(1.08–1.32)	1.13*	(1.03–1.25)	1.08	(0.98–1.20)
Good	0.99	(0.82–1.20)	1.47*	(1.26–1.71)	1.48*	(1.27–1.73)	1.33*	(1.13–1.56)
Water purified in household
No®
Yes	0.94	(0.84–1.06)	1.18*	(1.07–1.30)	1.05	(0.95–1.15)	1.10	(1.00–1.22)
Wealth quintile of household
Poorest®
Poor	1.09	(0.94–1.26)	1.28*	(1.11–1.46)	1.21*	(1.06–1.38)	1.31*	(1.14–1.50)
Medium	1.28*	(1.09–1.50)	1.88*	(1.63–2.17)	1.45*	(1.26–1.66)	1.63*	(1.41–1.88)
Rich	1.34*	(1.11–1.61)	1.88*	(1.60–2.22)	1.56*	(1.33–1.82)	1.63*	(1.38–1.92)
Richest	1.70*	(1.33–2.17)	2.45*	(1.99–3.00)	1.82*	(1.49–2.23)	1.80*	(1.46–2.23)
Household below poverty line
Yes®
No	0.91	(0.81–1.02)	1.20*	(1.08–1.33)	1.14*	(1.03–1.25)	1.05	(0.95–1.16)
Gender of household head
Male®
Female	1.07	(0.86–1.31)	1.08	(0.91–1.28)	1.11	(0.94–1.32)	1.01	(0.84–1.21)
Caste of the household head
ST®
SC	1.03	(0.85–1.24)	1.19*	(1.01–1.40)	1.19*	(1.02–1.40)	1.20*	(1.01–1.42)
OBC	1.08	(0.89–1.31)	1.20*	(1.01–1.43)	1.10	(0.93–1.30)	1.20*	(1.01–1.43)
Others	1.18	(0.96–1.45)	1.43*	(1.19–1.71)	1.31*	(1.10–1.56)	1.49*	(1.24–1.79)
Religion of the household head
Hindu®
Muslim	0.71*	(0.62–0.82)	0.56*	(0.49–0.63)	0.58*	(0.51–0.65)	0.63*	(0.55–0.72)
Others	0.99	(0.79–1.23)	1.02	(0.85–1.22)	1.00	(0.84–1.19)	1.11	(0.92–1.34)
Type of community
Rural®
Urban	0.94	(0.81–1.09)	0.98	(0.87–1.11)	0.99	(0.88–1.11)	0.91	(0.80–1.03)
Attack/threat on household
Yes®
No	0.99	(0.74–1.33)	1.59*	(1.22–2.09)	1.36*	(1.05–1.76)	1.65*	(1.26–2.16)
Solving community problem
Each family individually®
Families come together	0.93	(0.84–1.03)	1.12*	(1.03–1.22)	1.03	(0.94–1.11)	1.11*	(1.02–1.21)
Highest educational level of male adult (21+ years)
No formal schooling®
Upto 5 years of schooling	0.92	(0.79–1.07)	1.29*	(1.12–1.48)	1.39*	(1.22–1.59)	1.24*	(1.08–1.43)
6–10 years of schooling	0.96	(0.83–1.11)	1.45*	(1.27–1.65)	1.58*	(1.39–1.79)	1.46*	(1.28–1.66)
More than 10 years of schooling	1.05	(0.89–1.23)	1.66*	(1.44–1.92)	1.86*	(1.62–2.14)	1.58*	(1.37–1.83)
Highest educational level of female adult (21+ years)
No formal schooling®
Upto 5 years of schooling	1.09	(0.94–1.26)	1.38*	(1.21–1.57)	1.63*	(1.43–1.84)	1.41*	(1.24–1.60)
6–10 years of schooling	1.08	(0.94–1.25)	1.67*	(1.48–1.89)	1.75*	(1.55–1.97)	1.57*	(1.38–1.78)
More than 10 years of schooling	0.99	(0.83–1.19)	2.02*	(1.74–2.35)	1.62*	(1.40–1.88)	1.69*	(1.45–1.97)
Forms of mass media a child is exposed
None®
One	1.05	(0.94–1.17)	1.05	(0.95–1.16)	1.01	(0.91–1.11)	1.00	(0.90–1.10)
Two or more	0.97	(0.85–1.11)	1.08	(0.97–1.21)	0.98	(0.88–1.10)	1.06	(0.94–1.19)
Domestic violence on women in community
Yes®
No	0.86*	(0.76–0.99)	1.17*	(1.05–1.32)	1.13*	(1.01–1.27)	1.23*	(1.09–1.39)
Women autonomy in healthcare of children in household
No®
Yes	1.01	(0.91–1.13)	1.20*	(1.10–1.32)	1.00	(0.92–1.10)	1.08	(0.98–1.19)
Type of school attended in Round-II
Public school
Private school	1.32*	(1.18–1.48)	1.22*	(1.11–1.35)	1.41*	(1.28–1.55)	1.35*	(1.22–1.49)
Takes private tuition in Round-II
No
Yes	1.16*	(1.03–1.32)	1.58*	(1.43–1.75)	1.48*	(1.34–1.64)	1.34*	(1.21–1.49)
Number of children	8,204		7,910		7,941		7,851

Note – (a) Statistical significance is denoted by asterisks where * p < 0.05; (b) ® denotes reference category; (c) the categories of stunting status are – severely stunted, moderately stunted, not stunted; (d) the categories of mathematical skill are – cannot recognize numbers, can recognize numbers, can do subtraction, can do division; (e) the categories of reading skill are – cannot read letters, can read letters, can read words, can read paragraph, can read story; (f) the categories of writing skill are – cannot write, can write with 1–2 mistakes, can write with no mistakes.