Table 4.

In vitro evidence of the effects of curcumin on androgen-insensitive prostate cancer cells.

Cell Line	Curcumin Dosage	Effects	Reference
PC3	0–50 μM; 0–72 h IC50: 10–20 μM	↓ Proliferation ↑ Lifted, round cells	[54]
DU-145	10 and 50 μM; 1–4 days to assess cell viability 0–100 μM; 5 h to assess NF-κB expression 0-50 μM; 5 h to assess AP-1 expression 50 μM; 0–72 h to assess the expression of Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL 100 μM; 0–72 h to assess the expression and activity of procaspases 3 and 8 50 μM; 0–4 days to assess cell proliferation, PARP cleavage, and apoptosis	↓ Cell viability ↓ Proliferation ↓ NF-κB protein activation ↓ AP-1 protein ↓ Bcl-2 protein ↓ Bcl- xL protein ↑ Procaspase-3 and -8 activity ↑ PARP cleavage ↑ Apoptosis	[55]
PC3	30 μM; 21 days to assess colony formation efficiency 0–50 μM; 24 h to assess cell growth 30 μM; 24 h	↓ Cell growth ↓ Colony formation efficiency ↓ AR transcriptional activity ↓ c-Jun ↓ AP-1 ↓ CBP ↓ NF-κB mRNA	[56]
DU-145	5–40 μM; 48 h	↓ Cell viability ↑ Cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase	[58]
PC3, DU-145	35 μM; 30 min in PC3 14 μM; 30 min in DU-145	↓ p-Akt in PC3 only	[59]
DU-145	0–125 ug/mL; 24–72 h to assess cell proliferation 10 ug/mL; 0–48 h to assess apoptosis 0–100 ug/mL; 0–48 h to assess MMP-2 an MMP-9 secretion 1–15 ug/mL; 24 h to assess MMP-9 protein expression	↓ Proliferation ↑ Apoptosis ↓ MMP-2 secretion ↓ MMP-9 secretion ↓ MMP-9 protein	[88]
PC3	0–50 μM; 0–72 h to assess the expression of MDM2, p21, Bax, and E2F1 0–30 μM; 24 h and 15 μM; 0–20 h to assess MDM2 mRNA expression 0–30 μM; 24 h to assess ETS2 and p-Akt expression 0–30 μM; 48 h to assess apoptosis, cell viability, and proliferation	↓ Cell viability ↓ Proliferation ↓ MDM2 protein and mRNA ↑ P21 ↑ Bax ↓ E2F1 ↓ Bcl-2 ↓ ETS2 ↓ P-Akt ↑ Apoptosis	[70]
DU-145, PC3	0–30 μM; 48 h to assess cell viability 0–30 μM; 3 weeks to assess colony formation efficiency 0–30 μM; 24 h to assess caspase-3 activation and PARP cleavage	↓ Cell viability ↓ Colony formation efficiency ↑ Caspase-3 activation and nuclear translocation ↑ PARP cleavage	[61]
PC3, DU-145	20 μM in DU-145, 30 μM in PC3; 48 h to assess cell viability and NF-κB expression 20–40 μM in PC3, 10–30 μM in DU-145; 24 h to assess Akt phosphorylation 10–30 μM; 24 h to assess protein expression	↓ NF-κB ↓ IκBα ↓ Bcl-2 ↓ Bcl-xL ↓ XIAP	[71]
PC3, DU-145	25 μM; 17 h 10–50 μM; 17 h to assess IL-6 and IL-8 gene expression 10–25 μM; 17 h to assess NF-κB-luc activity	↑ MKP5 mRNA ↓ TNFα ↓ P-p38 ↓ COX-2 ↓ COX-2 mRNA ↓ IL-6 mRNA ↓ IL-8 mRNA ↓ p38-mediated inflammatory signaling	[72]
PC3	0–30 μM; 24 h to assess cell viability 5–40 μM; 21 days to assess colony formation efficiency and TRAIL-induced apoptosis 0–10 μM; 24 h to assess expression of DR4, DR5, DcR1, an dDcR2 0–20 μM; 24 and 48 h to assess the expression of pro- and antiapoptotic proteins, caspases, cleaved PARP, and mitochondrial membrane potential	↓ Cell viability ↓ Colony formation efficiency ↑ TRAIL-induced apoptosis ↑ DR4 death receptor ↑ DR5 death receptor ↑ Bak ↑ Bax ↑ PMMA ↑ Bim ↑ Noxa ↓ Bcl-2 ↓ Bcl-xL ↑ Bid cleavage to tBid ↓ IAPs ↓ XIAP ↓ Mitochondria membrane potential ↑ Caspase-3 activity ↑ Caspase-3, -8, -9 cleavage ↑ PARP cleavage	[62]
PC3	20 μM; 24 h to assess cell-cycle progression 0–20 μM; 48 h and 20 μM; 0–48 h to assess apoptotic processes 0–20 μM; 0–48 h to assess protein expression	↑ Cell-cycle arrest at the G1/S phase ↑ Apoptosis ↑ p27 ↑ p21 ↑ p16 ↓ Rb hyperphosphorylation ↓ Cyclin D1 ↓ Cyclin E ↓ CDK4	[63]
PC3	0–100 μM; 24 h	↓ Cell proliferation ↓ Glyoxalase 1 activity ↑ Cytotoxicity ↑ Necrosis	[89]
PC3	0–50 μM; 24 h to assess cell viability, 8h to assess protein and DNA synthesis 0–50 μM; 1 h and 40 μM; 0–2 h to assess protein expression 40 μM; 1 h to assess the expression of p-Akt, p-mTOR, and p-S6	↓ Proliferation ↓ p-Akt ↓ p-mTOR ↓ p70S6K ↓ FOXO1 ↓ GSK3β ↑ p-AMPK ↑ MAPK ↓ Cyclin D1 ↑ Phosphatase activity	[65]
PC3	30 μM; 18 h	↓ CCL2 triggered cell adhesion ↓ Cell invasion ↓ Cell motility ↓ Adhesion to fibronectin ↓ CCL2 mRNA ↓ CCL2	[90]
Pc-Bra1	10 μM, 25 μM, or 50 μM; 24 h	↓ Cell viability ↑ Apoptosis ↓ Necrosis	[75]
PC3	25, 50, and 100 μM; 24–72 h to assess apoptosis and DNA fragmentation 100 μM; 3 and 6 h to assess expression of JNK and p38 MAPK 100 μM; 48 h to assess expression of caspases and cytochrome c	↑ Apoptosis ↑ Ceramide ↑ ssDNA ↑ JNK ↑ P38 MAPK ↓ Procaspases-3, -8, and -9 ↑ Accumulation of cytochrome c in cytoplasm	[66]
PC3, DU-145	10–100 μM; 4 and 24 h 20 μM; 24 h in 22RV1 and DU-145 only for fluorescent microscopy and nuclear staining	Curcumin compartmentalization within cytoplasm and exclusion from nucleus ↑ Cytotoxicity ↑ Apoptosis ↑ Autophagy	[77]
PC3	50 μM; 24 h	↓ Proliferation Cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase ↑ Apoptosis ↓ NF-κB ↓ AP-1	[91]
PC3	20 μM; 24 h	↑ IL-6, INS, DDIT3, NDRG1, MIR-152	[81]
PC3	15 μM; 24 h	↓ Iκb kinase β ↑ IκBα ↓ CXCL1 ↓ CXCL2 ↓ NF-κB	[92]
PC3, DU-145,	0–50 μM; 16 h, 24 h 25 and 50 μM; 1 h acute treatments	↓ Cell growth ↓ Cell migration/invasion ↓ Total and activated matripase	[83]
PC3	0–20 μM; 48 h	↓ Cell viability ↑ Apoptosis ↓ ld1 ↓ ld1 mRNA	[93]
PC3, DU-145,	40 μM; 0–24 h to assess expression of ERK1/2, SAPK/JNK 0-60 μM; 24 h to assess expression of p65 and MUC1-C 10-100 μM; 24–72 h to assess cell viability	↓ Cell viability ↑ P-ERK 1/2 ↑ P-SAPK/JNK in PC3 and DU-145 ↓ MUC1-C ↓ NF-κB subunit p65	[94]
PC3	25 μM	↓ EMT ↓ IL-6 ↓ ROS ↓ MAOA/mTOR/HIF-1α ↓ Cell invasion	[95]
DU-145	0–50 μM; 48 h to assess cell proliferation 15 μM; 48 h	↑ Cell death ↓ HGF-induced cell scattering ↓ Wound closure ↓ Cell invasion ↑ E-cadherin ↓ Vimentin ↓ c-Met ↓ Snail mRNA ↓ p-ERK	[96]
DU-145	10–50 μM; 24–72 h to assess cell viability and apoptotic activity 25 μM; 48 h for immunoblotting and PCR 25 μM; 24–72 h to assess cell-cycle progression	↓ Proliferation ↑ Apoptosis ↓ NOTCH1 ↓ Cell survival ↓ Cell growth Cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 stage ↑ CDK inhibitors ↑ P21 ↑ P27	[97]
PC3, DU-145	0–50 μM; 24h	↑ Apoptosis ↑ Autophagy ↑ Cytotoxicity ↑ TFR1 ↑ IRP1	[98]
DU-145, PC3	0–50 μM; 48 h to assess dose–response relationship 25 μM; 0–48 h to assess time–effect relationship 25 μM; 24 h for scratch assay 10 and 50 μM; 24 h for immunoblotting and PCR	↓ Cell viability ↓ Proliferation ↓ Wound closure ↓ MT1-MMP mRNA ↓ MMP2 mRNA	[99]
DU145, PC3	10 μM; 1–5 days to assess cell viability and migration 10 μM; 0–24 h for PCR and immunoblotting 10 μM; 48 h to assess PGK1 expression	↑ miR-143 ↓ Proliferation ↓ Cell migration ↓ KRAS signaling ↑ Docetaxel sensitivity ↓ PGK1 ↑ FOXD3	[100]
PC3	5 μg/mL; 72 h	↓ Cell viability Cell-cycle arrest ↑ Caspase-3 ↑ Uncleaved caspase-3 ↑ Uncleaved caspase-9 ↑ Caspase-12 ↑ PARP ↑ GRP78 ↑ Inositol-requiring enzyme 1 ↑ Calreticulin ↑ P-eIF2α ↑ Autophagy ↑ LC3B	[67]
PC3	25 μM; 48 h to evaluate apoptosis, gene and protein expression 25 μM; 24 h to assess H2O2 production 1.6–25 μM; 48 h to assess cell viability 10–50 μM; 30 min to assess ROS production	↓ Cell viability ↑ Cytotoxicity ↑ Apoptosis ↑ ROS ↑ CuZnSOD ↑ TRX1 oxidation ↑ TRXR1 mRNA	[84]
PC3, DU-145	0–20 μM; 4 days to assess cell viability 0–10 μM; 4 days to assess proliferation, protein expression and miR-34a expression	↓ Cell viability ↓ DNA synthesis ↓ Proliferation ↓ Cyclin D1 ↓ PCNA ↑ P21 ↑ miR-34α ↓ β-catenin ↓ c-myc	[68]