Table 2.

The toxicological and therapeutic effects of different types of nanoparticles.

Nanoparticles	Toxicological Effects	Therapeutic Effects
Aluminum oxide	These NPs used as 1–10 μM in HBMVECs, decreased cell viability, decreased mitochondrial functions, and increased oxidative stress [90]	These NPs were used to penetrated Candida cells, which disrupted the morphological and physiological activity of these cells [91]
	These NPs 50–80 nm in diameter, were used in mammalian cells EZ4U, caused no significant toxic effect on cell viability [92]	These NPs showed good antibacterial, activity against clinical isolates of P. aeruginosa was significant [93]
	The NP were used as 160 nm in size in HMSC, caused decreased cell viability [94]	The NPs were effective against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria [95]
	The NPs were used to check rat blood cells comet micronuclei, caused dose-dependent genotoxicity [96]	The NPs were used as anti-cancer therapy, cytotoxic agents to induce cell death in human prostate cancer cells, and for boosting the efficacy of cancer vaccines [97]
	These NPs (50 nm) were used as 0–5000 μg/mL to induce comet DNA damage [98]	The NPs were used as leishmania vaccine to induce autophagy in macrophages and as potent vaccination adjuvant [99]
Copper oxide	These NPs were used in human lung epithelial cells, caused decreased cell viability, increased LDH expression and enhanced lipid peroxidation [100]	The NPs were used in MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines for their cytotoxic effect therapeutics [101]
	These NPs were used as 0.002–0.2 μg/mL in lung cancer cells, lead to decreased cell viability [102]	These NPs caused skin cancer cells A-375 apoptotic cell death by the activation of caspase-9 [103]
Gold	The NPs caused enhanced lipid peroxidation, oxidative damage and upregulation of stress response genes, and protein expression [104]	The NPs caused the Inhibition of angiogenesis and acted as promising candidates for the drug delivery systems and in cancer therapeutics [105]
	These NPs induced a significant toxicity, effectively entered the cytoplasm and nucleus, leading to the damage of cellular and nuclear membranes [106]	These NPs were used for the treatment of rheumatic diseases including juvenile arthritis, psoriasis, palindromic rheumatism, and discoid lupus Erythematosus [107]
	As 5-nm size, induced the cytotoxicity at 50 mM, whereas no toxicity was observed when used as 15-nm NPs. This shows the size-dependent toxicity of NPs [108]	These NPs increased the apoptosis in B-chronic lymphocytic leukemia (BCLL) treatment-suffering patients [109]
	The chitosan-functionalized AuNPs induced the cytotoxicity and pro-inflammatory responses. This indicates the charge-dependent toxicity [110]	The NPs were used as surface coating for different biomedicine applications such as dressing fabrics, implants, glass surfaces [111]
Silica	These NPs used as 10–100 μg/mL in human bronchoalveolar carcinoma cells showed enhanced ROS production, increased LDH expression and higher malondialdehyde formation [112]	As silica-gold nanoshells and gold nanorods were used for tissue stimulating phantoms during photothermal therapy [113]
	These NPs were used in hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2), showed enhanced ROS production and mitochondrial damage due to increased oxidative stress [114]	The Silica-gold nanoshells were used in human breast carcinoma cells (in vitro) and transmissible venereal tumor (in vivo) as a photothermal therapy agents [115]
Silver	These NPs were used in BRL 3A cell lines and resulted in decreased cell viability, increased LDH expression due to enhanced ROS production [116]	These NPs capped with polyvinyl-pyrrolidone encapsulated in polymer Nanoparticles Human Glioblastoma. Astrocytoma epithelial-like Cell line (U87MG) (in vitro); Swiss mice and severe combined immunodeficiency mice bearing U87MG tumors (in vivo) Therapeutic Evaluation [117]
	These NPs were used as 0–20 μg/mL in human alveolar cell lines, resulted in decreased cell viability due to increased ROS production [118]	The silver nano-shell with a carbon core were used in prostate adenocarcinoma cell line model as photothermal ablation or radiation enhanced therapy [119]
	These NPs (20–40 nm) in size were used in human leukemia cell line WST-1 and resulted in decreased cell viability and the increased expression of LDH [120]	These NPs acted as the excellent candidates for bioimaging and act as good anticancer agents [121]
Zinc oxide	These NPs were used in human colon carcinoma cells, resulted in increased oxidative stress, decreased cell viability and the expression of more inflammatory biomarkers [122]	These NPs when used in murine cell lines showed cytotoxic effects [123]
	Larger NPs (307–419 nm) in size were used in in human cervix carcinoma cell line (HEp-2), enhanced the DNA damage and decreased the cell viability [124]	These NPs were regarded as a possible treatment for cancer and autoimmune diseases and were found to be involved in specific killing of cancer cells and lead to the activation of human T cells [125]
	These NPs resulted in decreased cell viability due to increased DNA damage and increased ROS production and leading to apoptosis [126]	These NPs were used in bioimaging, drug delivery, gene delivery, and as zinc-based biosensors [127]
	These NPs were used in human hepatocytes HEK 293 cell line, reduced cell viability, increased mitochondrial damage due to higher oxidative stress [128]	These NPs were used to prevents herpes, by stopping the viral entry and infection [129]
	These NPs (<20 nm) were used as 100 μg/mL in human bronchial epithelial cells showed decreased cell viability, LDH release due to enhanced oxidative stress [130]	These NPs were used to prevents the helminth infection as it disrupts the electron transport system and inhibiting the ATP production, so stopping the contractile movement of the parasite [131]
Iron oxide	These NPs were used in murine macrophage cells and resulted in decreased cell viability [132]	These NPs as superparamagnetic NPs were coated with silica-gold nanoshells and used in head and neck cancer cell lines and resulted in overexpression of EGFR and were used for photothermal therapy [133]
	The NPs as (100–150 nm) in sized used as 0.1 mg/mL in human macrophages resulted in decreased cell viability [134]	These NPs were used in prostate cancer, were magnetic field responsive for thermal ablation [135]
	These NPs were used in human hepatocellular carcinoma cells resulted in decreased cell viability [136]	These NPs as aminosilane-coated, were used for thermotherapy during brain tumors [137]
	The NPs (20 nm) were used as 0.1 mg/mL in rat mesenchymal stem cells resulted in decreased cell viability [138]	These NPs as starch-coated were magnetically guided for mitoxantrone tumor angiogenesis [139]
Titanium oxide	These NPs were used in mouse models, resulted in enhanced DNA damage and resulted in genotoxicity [140]	These NPs were used in CT26 and LL2 mouse cancer to increase oxidative stress [141]
	These NPs were used as 10–50 μg/mL in human lung cells resulted in enhanced oxidative stress, more DNA adduct formation and increased cytotoxicity [142]	These NPs were used as efficient drug delivery systems and in photodynamic therapy of tumors [143]