Table 2.
Selective physical modulation for circumventing the BBB in treating glioma.
| Physical Modulation | Physical Source | Invasive or Noninvasive | Tight Junction Effects | Vesicular Transport Effects | Clinical Stage | Refs |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Electromagnetic pulse (EMP) | Electromagnetic radiation | Noninvasive | ZO-1↓, Occludin↓, Claudin-5↓, MMP-2↑, MMP-9↑ | _ | Preclinical | [103,104,105,106,107,108] |
| Laser-induced thermal therapy (LITT) | Laser | Invasive, under anesthesia | _ | _ | Clinical | [109,110,111,112,113,114] |
| Radiotherapy: Synchrotron microbeam radiation therapy (MRT) | X-ray beams | Noninvasive | ZO-1↓, Claudin-5↓, beta-catenin↓ | _ | Preclinical | [115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124] |
| Focused ultrasound (FUS) | Ultrasonic waves with microbubbles |
Noninvasive | Occludin↓, Claudin-1↓, Claudin-5↓ | Transport vesicles↑, Caveolin-1↑ | Clinical | [125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136] |
Note: Up-regulated ↑; Down-regulated ↓.