Table 3.
Electrochemical based nanobiosensors of epidemic/pandemic influenza viruses in comparison with coronaviruses (SARS/MERS-CoV and 2019-nCoV).
| Biological Samples | Nanomaterials | Detection Methods | Target | Limit of Detection (LOD) Linear Range (LR) |
Ref. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| INFLUENZA VIRUSES | ||||||
| Biological substances such as DNA and proteins | Graphene (single-layer hexagonal carbon networks) |
Field-Effect Transistor (FET) | Lectin | LOD: 130 pM LR: – |
[110] | |
| Oligonucleotide sequences derived from an H5N1 avian influenza | rGO reduced graphene oxide | Field-Effect Transistor (FET) | Gene (H5N1) | LOD: 50 pM LR: – |
[111] | |
| Saliva | Nanocrystalline boron-doped diamond | Electrochemical impedance (EIS) | Influenza virus M1 protein | LOD: 5 × 10−14 g/mL LR: – |
[86] | |
| Egg sample | Graphene gold hybrid nanocomposite | Electrochemical impedance EIS) | Influenza A virus | LOD: 10–8 U/mL LR: 10−8–10−10 U/mL |
[124] | |
| Fetal bovine serum, extraneous bovine serum albumin (BSA) | Gold electrode | Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) | Human influenza virus type A (H3N2) | LOD: 8 ng/mL LR: |
[112] | |
| Saliva buffer | Diamond biosensor (nano-scale boron-doped diamond surface sensor) | Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) | M1 protein of influenza A virus | LOD: 1 fg/mL LR: 1–100 fg/mL |
[113] | |
| Samples contained bovine serum albumin solution (BSA (0.5%) | Nanostructured hybrid bilayers on gold electrodes | Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) | Human influenza A virus (H1N1) | LOD: 0.024 μg/mL LR: – |
[78] | |
| Viral sample of inactivated, but intact influenza viruses H3N2 | Gold electrode | Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) | Human influenza A virus (H3N2) | LOD: 1.3 × 104 viruses/mL LR: – |
[114] | |
| Isolated AIV H5N1 sample incubated for 45 min at 37 °C | Magnetic iron oxide (Fe3O4) nanobeads | Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) | Avian influenza virus (AIV) (H5N1) | LOD: 0.0128 HA unit/50 μL. LR: – |
[116] | |
| Biological samples with avian influenza virus | Magnetic streptavidin-coated 30 nm nanobeads | Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) | Avian influenza virus (AIV) (H5N1) | LOD: 103 EID 50/mL LR: – |
[115] | |
| Inactivated avian influenza virus H5N1 sample | Concanavalin A-glucose oxidase-Au nanoparticles (ConA-GOx-AuNPs) | Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) | Avian influenza virus (AIV) (H5N1) | LOD: 0.04 HAU/mL LR: – |
[117] | |
| Commercial sample Spike saliva | Gold paper electrode | Electrochemical Impedance spectroscopy (EIS) | H1N1 antigen | LOD: 4.70 PFU/mL LR: – |
[125] | |
| Influenza viral particles in infected swine nasal samples | Reduced graphene oxide nanosheets (RGO) | Chronoamperometry (CA) | Human influenza A virus (H1N1) | LOD: 0.5 PFU/mL LR: 1 to 104 PFU/mL |
[118] | |
| Virus culture in embryonated chicken egg | Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) | Chronoamperometry (CA) | Influenza virus (H9N2) | LOD: 16 HAU LR: – |
[119] | |
| Virus samples in chicken embryo cultures | Conducting polymer of PEDOT-poly (3,4-ethylene-dioxythiophene) PSS film | Amperometry | Human influenza A virus (H1N1) | LOD: 0.025 HAU LR: – |
[126] | |
| Commercial ELISA kits Probe sequence (avidin from egg whites) | ZnO-NRs Glass Wafer/PD MS |
Amperometry | (H1N1), (H5N1), and (H7N9) influenza | LOD: 1.00 pg/mL LR: 1–10 ng/mL |
[27] | |
| Throat swab samples | Gold electrode | Amperometry | Tetrahedral DNA probe of the H7N9/ssDNA of H7N9 | LOD: 0.750 pM LR: – |
[127] | |
| Analyte samples collected from the throats of live animals, fecal content, and blood | Graphene oxide (GO) nanostructures Dual carbon SPE |
Chronoamperometry and Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) |
HA proteins of Influenza virus (H5N1)/(H1N1) | LOD: 9.4 pM (Commercial H1N1) LOD: 8.3 pM (Commercial H5N1) LR: 25–100 pM |
[121] | |
| Nasal swab and oropharyngeal samples | Gold screen printed electrode (SPE) | Cyclic voltammetry (CV) | ss-cDNA of the H1N1 | LOD: 0.004 ng in 6 µL | [128] | |
| Chicken serum | Gold electrode | Cyclic voltammetry (CV) | HA protein of H5N1 | LOD: 1.00 pM | [129] | |
| Negative chicken swab samples | Fe3O4 Magnetic Nanoparticles | Cyclic voltammetry (CV) | Avian influenza virus (AIV) (H5N1) | LOD: 0.367 HAU/mL LR: 0.0025 to 0.16 HAU |
[120] | |
| Human blood, nasal swab, saliva, and urine | AP-Neu5Ac substrate | Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) Linear sweep Voltammetry (LSV) |
Viral surface of NA-neuraminidase | LOD: 5.6 ng/mL LR: 0–900 nG/mL |
[108] | |
| Cell culture and viral infection cells | Specific anti-PB1-F2 antibody on the surface of the Au micro-electrode modified with polypyrrole bearing ferrocene | Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) |
Protein of influenza A virus (PB1-F2) | LOD: 0.42 nM LR: – |
[87] | |
| Human serum | Pt NPs_porous ZnO spheres | Voltammetric (Cyclic Voltammetry) | DNA sequence of influenza virus | LOD: 0.76 pg/mL LR: 0.001–60 ng/mL |
[122] | |
| Diluted human serum samples spiked | AuNPs | Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) | H5N1 DNA aptamer/antiH5N1 | LOD: 100 fM LR: 100 fM–10 pM |
[130] | |
| Saliva from a healthy person | Superhydrophobic paper/conductive carbon paste | Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) | H1N1 antibody/H1N1 antigen | 113 PFU/mL | [131] | |
| Antibodies from Hen sera from individuals vaccinated and non-vaccinated | Gold electrode | Osteryoung square wave voltammetry (OSWV) | His6-H5 HA/antiH5N1 | LOD: 2.40 pg/mL LR: 4.0–100.0 pg/mL |
[132] | |
| Diluted human and swine serum Vaccinated mice sera | Gold electrode | Osteryoung square wave voltammetry (OSWV). | His6-H1HA/anti-H1N1 | LOD: – LR: – |
[133] | |
| Biological samples | Gold electrode | Osteryoung Square Wave Voltammetry (OSWV) | ssDNA of H5N1/ RNA of the H5N1 | LOD: 3.00 copies/µL | [134] | |
| The probe DNA (avidin-biotinylated probe DNA) |
AuNPs | Voltammetric | Influenza virus type A (H1N1) | LOD: – LR: – |
[135] | |
| Real patient samples | CdS quantum dots (QDs) | Voltammetric | Influenza virus | LOD: 0.06 mM LR: 0.06–0.5 mM |
[53] | |
| Infected swine nasal samples | Single walled carbon nanotubes | Conductometry | Swine influenza virus (SIV) (H1N1) | LOD: 180 TCID50/mL LR: – |
[123] | |
| Clinical exhaled breath condensate (EBC) samples | Silicon nanowire (SiNW) | Conductometry | Human influenza A viruses (H1N1) and (H3N2) | LOD: 2.9 viruses/µL LR: – |
[55] | |
| Saliva from a healthy person | Superhydrophobic paper/conductive carbon paste | Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) | H1N1 antibody/H1N1 antigen | 113 PFU/mL | [131] | |
| Antibodies from Hen sera from individuals vaccinated and non-vaccinated | Gold electrode | Osteryoung square wave voltammetry (OSWV) | His6-H5 HA/antiH5N1 | LOD: 2.40 pg/mL LR: 4.0–100.0 pg/mL |
[132] | |
| CORONAVIRUSES | ||||||
| SARS-CoV | ||||||
| Streptavidin (S-Av) analyte | Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) |
Field-Effect Transistor (FET) | nucleocapsid (N) protein of the SARS virus | LOD: physiological conditions | [136] | |
| Bovine serum albumin | In2O3 nanowire with an AMP (Fibronectin, Fn) | Field-Effect Transistor (FET) | SARS Virus N-Protein Nucleocapsid (N) |
LOD: sub-nanomolar Concentration of N protein |
[45] | |
| A 30-mer sequence of SARS Virus | 100 nm sputtered gold film | Cyclic voltammetry (CV) |
SARS virus sequence | LOD: 7 × 10−6 M LR. 10−5 to 5 × 10−4 M |
[137] | |
| Bovine serum albumin (BSA) and a rabbit immuno- Globulin G (RIgG) labeled with aurothiomalate |
Au electrodeposition on glassy carbon electrodes (GCEs | Cyclic voltammetry (CV) | 30-mer sequence of the SARS virus | LOD: 15 fmol (30 μL) LR: – |
[138] | |
| DNA sequence of SARS virus | Gold nanoparticles | Cyclic voltammetry (CV) Screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCEs) |
SARS virus sequence | LOD: 2.5 pmol/L LR: – |
[139] | |
| Clinical specimens | Au@Fe3O4 nanocomposite Fe3O4 NPs (for premix A prep a-ration) and graphene oxide (GO) (for premix B preparation) |
Differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) with a smartphone | RNA of SARS-CoV-2 | LOD: 200 copies/mL LR: – |
[140] | |
| Protein sample of SARS-CoV | - | high electron mobility transistors (HEMTs | SARS-CoV nucleocapsid protein | LOD: 0.003 nM LR: – |
[99] | |
| MERS-CoV or hCoV-EMC/2012 | ||||||
| Spiked nasal samples | AuNPs on carbon electrode | Square wave voltammetry (SWV) | Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and human coronavirus (hCoV) | LOD: 0.4 pg/mL LR: – |
[62] | |
| 2019-nCoV or SARS-CoV-2 | ||||||
| Human Nasopharyngeal Swab Specimens, from COVID-19 patients Cultured virus |
Graphene sheet | Field-Effect Transistor (FET) | SARS-CoV-2 spike protein | LOD: 1.6 × 101 pfu/mL in culture medium 2.42 × 102 copies/mL in clinical samples LR: – |
[69] | |
| Green Monkey Kidney Cell Culture | Membrane-Engineered Vero Cells (Vero/Anti-S1) | Bioelectric Recognition Assay (BERA) | SARS-CoV-2 S1 Spike Protein Antigen |
LOD: 1 fg/mL LR: – |
[4] | |
| Spiked saliva samples | Fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) electrode with gold nanoparticle (AuNPs) | Cyclic Voltammetry (CV), Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV) |
nCovid-19 spike antigen (nCovid-19Ag) | LOD: 90 fM with eCovSens and 120 fM with potentiostat (spiked saliva samples LOD: 10 fM (in-house built device) of nCovid-19 Ag LR: 1 fM to 1 μM in standard buffer |
[141] | |