Fig. 4.

Squat toilets in different geographic regions. (a) A toilet cubicle for public access at the author’s affiliation in Xi’an, China; (b) residual feces left in the bowl of a squat toilet after flushing. Footsteps were easily contaminated by splashes containing fecal matter and urine during open flushing; (c) users were accustomed to dispose of their used tissues and feminine hygiene products in the open waste bin; (d) a squat toilet in India showing a similar design to those seen in China. Reprinted with a Creative Commons CC-BY license from Elsevier (Welling et al., 2020); (e) a squat toilet used in Africa (Photograph credit: P. Marion/Getty Images, available at: www.tripsavvy.com/how-to-use-a-squat-toilet-1454333); (f) a toilet for public access in a traditional coffee shop (“kopitiam”) in Malaysia (Photograph credit: www.travelblog.org/Photos/7083239)