Table 1.

Key findings on the prevalence of open defecation in developing countries. n.a.: non applicable

Country/region	Method	Sample size	Key data and findings	References
Worldwide	Data statistics	n.a.	At least 20 developing countries reported a significant portion of their population practicing open defecation (> 5%)	WHO (2017b)
Worldwide	Data statistics	n.a.	Progress of eliminating open defecation in 37 developing countries before the year 2030 is quite slow	UNICEF (2018)
Tanzania	Data analysis	Nationwide	Despite the overall declined prevalence, open defecation is common in the Northeastern and lake regions in Tanzania	Maliti (2020)
India	Random survey	1216 households	The real situation of open defecation in India is underestimated	Vyas et al. (2019)
India	Interviews	21 individuals	People have been aware of the risks associated with open defecation. However, challenges remain in constructing more latrines in rural areas	Jain et al. (2020)
Ethiopia	Questionnaire	758 households	The magnitude of diarrheal diseases in under-five children is approximately twofold in communities practicing open defecation compared to those with no open defecation	Tafere et al. (2020)
Ghana	Questionnaire	367 households	A multitude of factors including education, household size, occupation, income, traditional norms, beliefs, and ownership of a toilet facility have impacts on the choice of open defecation	Osumanu et al. (2020)
Kenya	Questionnaire	403 individuals	The practice of open defecation is associated with the design, structure, and conditions of latrines. About 80% of respondents stated that the constructions of latrines have influences on their choice of latrine use versus open defecation	Busienei et al. (2019)
Nepal	Interviews	20 individuals	The choice of open defecation is not only dependent on the availability of sanitary latrines, but depends on personal preferences, perceptions and religious beliefs.	Bhatt et al. (2019)