Table 1.

The properties and applications of C-dots produced from different biomass waste by solvothermal method.

Biomass Waste	Hydrothermal Condition	Fluorescence Quantum Yield	Application	Ref. 1
Wheat bran	180 °C, 3 h	-	drug delivery	[63]
Sugarcane Bagasse char	190 °C, 24 h	-	drug delivery	[64]
Waste food	200 °C, 1.5 h	-	light emitting diodes	[62]
Orange peels	180 °C, 12 h	-	photocatalysis	[59]
Onion waste	120 °C, 2 h	28%	Fe3+ detection and multicolor imaging	[65]
Waste food	195 °C, 225 °C, 255 °C, 12 h	28%, 18%, 10%, 6% for blue, green, yellow and red C-dots, respectively	Fe3+ detection	[66]
Tobacco leaves	200 °C, 3 h	27.9%	three kinds of tetracyclines detection	[67]
Coffee grounds	200 °C, 6–10 h	24%	Fe3+, Cu2+detection	[68]
Rice residue	200 °C, 12 h	23.48%	Fe3+ ions and tetracyclines detection	[69]
Bael leaves	170 °C, 5 h	22%	Fe3+ detection	[70]
Wheat straw	250 °C, 10 h	20%	labeling, imaging and sensing	[71]
Lemon peels	200 °C, 12 h.	14%	sensing and photocatalysis	[60]
Wheat straw and bamboo residues	180 °C, 4 h	13%	cell imaging and in vivo bioimaging	[72]
Dried lemon peels	200 °C, 6 h	11%	carmine detection	[73]
Tulsi leaves	180 °C, 4 h	9.3%	Pb2+ detection	[74]
Magnolia flower	200 °C, 8 h	8.13%	Fe3+ detection	[75]
Bamboo leaves	200 °C, 6 h	7.1%	Cu2+detection	[61]
Pomelo peels	200 °C, 3 h.	6.9%	Hg2+detection	[58]
Coconut husks	200 °C, 3 h	-	pH sensor	[76]
Prawn shells	180 °C, 12 h	-	nitrite detection	[77]

¹ refers to the reference.