Table 2.

An overview of many application fields of carbon dots obtained from biomass wastes.

Application Field	Biomass Waste	Method	Application	Ref. 1
Sensing	Bagasse waste	hydrothermal	Hg2+ detection	[123]
	Crown daisy leaf waste	hydrothermal	Cu2+ detection	[124]
	Lignocellulos waste	hydrothermal	Cu2+ detection	[125]
	Sargassum fluitans	hydrothermal	DNA detection	[126]
	Mango peels	hydrothermal	mesotrione detection	[127]
	Palm shell waste	ultrasonic	nitrophenol detection	[128]
	Waste tea residue	chemical oxidation	tetracycline detection	[129]
	Waste candle soot	chemical oxidation	Hg2+ and Fe3+ detection	[130]
	Kerosene fuel soot	chemical oxidation	picric acid, Fe3+ and Cu2+ detection	[131]
Imaging	Onion waste	hydrothermal	multicolor imaging and Fe3+ detection	[65]
	Wheat straw and bamboo residues	hydrothermal	cell imaging and in vivo bioimaging	[72]
	Banana peel waste	hydrothermal	in vivo bioimaging	[132]
	Lychee waste	Solvothermal	multicolor cell imaging and Fe3+ detection	[133]
	Roasted gram shells	microwave	in vitro cell imaging	[134]
	Food-waste	ultrasonic	in vitro bioimaging	[82]
	Cow manure	chemical oxidation	live-cell imaging with subcellular selectivity	[93]
	Walnut shells	carbonization and chemical cutting	intracellular bioimaging	[86]
	T. bispinosa peel	refluxing	cellular imaging	[121]
Drug delivery	Wheat bran	hydrothermal	drug delivery	[63]
	Sugarcane bagasse	burn and hydrothermal	drug delivery vehicle for acetaminophen	[64]
	Waste sago bark	catalyst-free pyrolysis	anticancer drug delivery and cancer cell imaging	[57]
	Crab shells	microwave	drug delivery and targeted dual-modality bioimaging	[80]
	Bamboo leaves	refluxing	drug delivery and tumor imaging	[135]
Photocatalysis	Waste frying oil	hydrothermal	photocatalysis	[136]
	Orange peels	hydrothermal	photocatalysis	[59]
	Lignocellulosic waste	pyrolysis	photocatalysis coupled to pollutant utilization	[137]
	Bitter apple peels	pyrolysis	photocatalysis	[138]
	Lemon peel waste	hydrothermal	photocatalysis and sensing	[60]
Others	Waste food	hydrothermal	Light-emitting diodes	[62]
	Willow leaves	hydrothermal	fluorescent ink and oxygen reduction electrocatalysts	[139]
	Pineapple peels	hydrothermal	electronic security devices and as a memory element	[140]
	Orange waste peels	hydrothermal	nonlinear optical applications	[141]
	Tea and peanut shells	hydrothermal	tea grades discrimination	[142]
	Sugarcane bagasse	refluxed and hydrothermal	naphthalene removal	[143]
	Durian peels	pyrolysis	energy storage device	[55]
	Onion peels	microwave	accelerated skin wound healing and live-cell imaging	[81]
	Waste tea residue	carbonization	used as growth plant stimulator	[144]

¹ refers to the reference.