Table 4.

Multivariable regression results as in Table 3, restricted to only those patients with a urolithiasis diagnosis. Adjusted odds of (1) receiving an opioid analgesic during the ED visit or (2) being discharged from the ED with a prescription opioid analgesic in a population of 1,296 adult ED patients diagnosed with urolithiasis.

Predictor variables	(1) Opioid analgesic during visit ORa (95% CI)	(2) Opioid analgesic at ED discharge ORa (95% CI)
Likelihood of urolithiasis diagnosis >50%	1.69 (1.28-2.23)	–b
Pain severity at arrival to ED (0-10)
Low (0-3)	1.00 (ref)	1.00 (ref)
Medium (4-8)	3.74 (2.34-5.96)	1.32 (0.84-2.08)
High (9 or 10)	7.54 (5.15-11.06)	1.50 (0.95-2.37)
>24 hrs in pain before arrival	0.75 (0.57-1.00)	0.66 (0.49-0.89)
Has health care coverage	1.34 (1.02-1.77)	1.19 (0.79-1.78)
Race\ethnicity
Non-Hispanic white	1.00 (ref)	1.00 (ref)
Non-Hispanic Black or African American	0.97 (0.54-1.75)	0.76 (0.47-1.24)
Hispanic	0.68 (0.48-0.97)	0.88 (0.59-1.32)
Mixed or other race	0.66 (0.41-1.08)	0.92 (0.59-1.44)
More than high school education	1.06 (0.80-1.39)	1.27 (1.00-1.60)
Self-rated health fair or poor
Excellent, very good, good	1.00 (ref)	1.00 (ref)
Fair or poor	1.76 (1.16-2.67)	0.84 (0.60-1.16)
Male gender	0.77 (0.63-0.95)	1.12 (0.84-1.50)
Age	1.01 (1.00-1.02)	1.01 (1.00-1.02)
Months since August 2011	0.98 (0.96-1.01)	0.94 (0.91-0.97)
Online access to state PDMP	1.32 (0.85-2.06)	1.78 (1.10-2.89)

^aOdds ratios estimated by a multivariable model with GEE estimation, a logit link, and robust standard errors clustered within each of 15 hospitals in the study sample of 1,296 adult ED urolithiasis patients with non-missing data for outcomes and variables in model (final sample from Table 1).

^bVariable not included in model.

Abbreviations: ED, emergency department; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; PDMP, prescription drug monitoring program.