Table 1.

Characteristics of quantitative studies on associations between gentrification and health outcomes in the US

Author (year)	Study design and methods	Study population	Study location	Definition and sources of data for gentrification measure	Health outcome	Findings
Huynh (2014)	Cross-sectional, multilevel, generalized estimating equations	126,165 infants born to women age 20+, 2008–2010 (excl. multiple births, multiparas, infants with congenital anomalies, and non-specified race/ethnicity)	New York City	Gentrification = ↑ in residents with a college education and ↑ in median household income and ↓ in residents living below the poverty line from 1990 to 2009 across 59 community districts Sources: 2005–2009 American Community Survey and the 1990 Census	Preterm birth	Gentrification not associated with preterm birth across races (AOR = 0.96 (95% CI: 0.87, 1.06) for very high vs very low); very high gentrified neighborhoods (vs. very low) had increased odds preterm birth for Black mothers (AOR = 1.16 (95% CI: 1.01, 1.33)), and decreased odds of preterm births for White mothers (AOR = 0.78 (95% CI: 0.64, 0.94))
Mair (2015)	Cohort, multilevel	548 Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA) participants (men and women aged 45 to 84)	New York City	Changes in five neighborhood dimensions between 2002 and 2007 across 104 census tracts: social cohesion, stress, violence, safety, and the esthetic environment Source: MESA Community Surveys	Depressive symptoms	No significant associations between gentrification (changes in neighborhood dimensions) and depressive symptoms: social cohesion ß = − 2.82 (95% CI: − 6.10, 0.46); stress ß = 1.75 (95% CI: − 1.10, 4.60); violence ß = 0.52 (95% CI: − 1.99, 3.03); safety ß = − 1.34 (95% CI: − 3.47, 0.78); esthetic environment ß = − 2.00 (95% CI: − 4.60, 0.60)
Gibbons (2016)	Cross sectional, multilevel	19,279 respondents in the 2008 Philadelphia Health Management Corporation’s Southeastern Pennsylvania Household Health Survey	Philadelphia	Changes in the citywide median values from 2000 to 2009 across 968 neighborhoods (census tracts), classified as follows: Gentrifiable = median household income below city median Gentrifying = gentrifiable and ↑ (gross rent or median income above the citywide median) and ↑ college-educated residents above the citywide median Black Gentrification = gentrifying and ↑ in % Black White Gentrification = gentrifying and ↑ in %White, ↓ in % Black Sources: 2000 Decennial Census and the 2006–2010 American Community Survey	Self-rated health	Gentrification associated with lower odds of poor/fair health across races (OR = 0.81, p ≤ 0.10); being Black (OR = 1.73, p ≤  0.05) or being in a neighborhood of Black gentrification associated with greater odds (OR = 1.74, p ≤ 0.10) of poor/fair self-rated health
Lim (2017)	Cohort, negative binomial regression	12,882 residents of gentrifying neighborhoods in 2006 with records of emergency department visits or hospitalization ≥ 1 every 2 years, 2006–2014	New York City	Changes from 2005 to 2014 in 55 neighborhoods, classified as follows: Gentrifying = neighborhoods with low initial rankings (i.e., low median household income, median rental price, and proportion of college graduates in 2005) and high rankings of growth (i.e., rapid ↑ in median household income, median rental price, and proportion of college graduates) determined by principle component analysis Non-gentrifying, poor = neighborhoods with low initial and growth rankings as determined by principle component analysis Source: Public Use Microdata Area boundaries from 2014 American Community Survey	Emergency department (ED) visits, hospitalizations, mental health-related visits	Displaced residents (vs. remaining in gentrified neighborhoods) had higher rates of ED visits (RR = 1.1 (95% CI: 1.0, 1.2)), hospitalizations (RR = 1.3 (95% CI: (1.2, 1.4)), and mental health-related visits (RR = 1.8 (95% CI: 1.5, 2.2)) Displaced residents from gentrifying neighborhoods (vs. only living in non-gentrifying neighborhoods) had higher rates of ED visits (RR = 1.2 (95% CI: 1.1, 1.2)), Hospitalizations (RR = 1.2 (95% CI: (1.1, 1.3)), and mental health-related visits (RR = 1.7 (95% CI: 1.4, 2.0))
Smith (2017)	Quasi-experimental	6,810 Medicare beneficiaries aged 65 or older (first wave respondents in National Health & Aging Trends Study)	US	Change from 2000 to 2010 in neighborhoods, defined by census tracts as follows: Gentrifying = neighborhoods in the < 40th percentile of the metropolitan area who experienced increase over the last 10 years of (a) median household income, (b) percent of college-educated residents, (c) median owner-occupied housing values, and (d) median rent Source: 1970–2010 National Neighborhood Change Database (NCDB)	Self-rated health, depression and anxiety symptoms	In gentrifying neighborhoods (compared with low-income neighborhoods): economically vulnerable (EV) residents had higher self-rated health (ß = 1.81 (95% CI: 1.10, 2.51)), but high income (HI) residents had worse mental health (ß = 3.62 (95% CI: 2.84, 4.41)) EV and HI residents had more depression/anxiety than counterparts in affluent areas (ß = 4.79 (95% CI: 2.79, 6.78) and ß = 3.64 (95% CI: 2.87, 4.41)), respectively
Izenberg (2018)	Cross-sectional, survey-adjusted multivariable logistic regression	60,196 adults age ≥ 18 (respondents in California Health Interview Survey, 2013–2015)	California	Change in 7992 census tracts from 2010 to 2015, classified as follows: Gentrifiable = median household income below the metropolitan area median defined by the Census-Based Statistical Area (CBSA), a proportion of pre-1980 building stock exceeding that of the median tract for the CBSA, and ≥ 50% of census block groups urbanized. Gentrifying = ↑ median rent (2015-adjusted dollars); [2] ↑ percentage adults with bachelor’s degrees (relative to the tract’s CBSA) Stable = gentrifiable at baseline, but did not gentrify Not gentrifiable = not gentrifiable at baseline Sources: 2006–2010 and 2011–2015 American Community Surveys	Self-rated health	Gentrification not associated with lower poor/hair health across races (AOR = 0.93 (95% CI: 0.76, 1.14)); being Black in a gentrifying neighborhood associated with over double the odds of fair/poor self-rated health (AOR = 2.44 (95% CI: 1.36, 4.37))

AOR, adjusted odds ratio; OR, odds ratio; RR, rate ratio; ß, coefficient estimate on linear scale; CI, confidence interval