Table 2.
Antibiotic Detection in Urine by Demographic and Behavioral Factors, Surveillance for Enteric Fever in Asia Project—Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan, 2016–2018
| Characteristic | Antibiotics Detected (n = 1145), No. (%) | Total (N = 2939), No. | PR (95% CI) | P Value |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, y | ||||
| <2 | 55 (43.0) | 128 | Ref | |
| 2–4 | 223 (38.8) | 575 | 0.91 (.70–1.14) | .429 |
| 5–15 | 394 (36.0) | 1093 | 0.83 (.64–1.05) | .122 |
| 16–25 | 134 (34.7) | 386 | 0.96 (.72–1.22) | .753 |
| >25 | 339 (45.0) | 754 | 1.11 (.88–1.35) | .363 |
| Sex | ||||
| Male | 652 (38.6) | 1691 | Ref | |
| Female | 493 (39.6) | 1245 | 1.02 (.92–1.12) | .694 |
| Fever duration ≥7 d | ||||
| No | 859 (36.5) | 2356 | Ref | |
| Yes | 279 (50.0) | 558 | 1.32 (1.19–1.45) | <.001 |
| Temperature at presentation 38.3 C | ||||
| No | 817 (39.6) | 2064 | Ref | |
| Yes | 236 (45.0) | 524 | 1.19 (1.06–1.32) | .004 |
| ≥3 d unable to conduct activity | ||||
| No | 399 (35.7) | 1118 | Ref | |
| Yes | 691 (42.3) | 1635 | 1.14 (1.03–1.26) | .012 |
| Reported diarrhea | ||||
| No | 983 (37.8) | 2600 | Ref | |
| Yes | 162 (48.5) | 334 | 1.19 (1.03–1.35) | .018 |
| Prior to enrollment, patient sought care at a hospital | ||||
| No | 786 (34.1) | 2302 | Ref | |
| Yes | 340 (56.1) | 606 | 1.54 (1.40–1.69) | <.001 |
| Prior to enrollment, patient sought care at a pharmacya | ||||
| No | 862 (39.9) | 2160 | Ref | |
| Yes | 246 (33.9) | 725 | 1.20 (1.07–1.33) | .003 |
| Prior to enrollment, patient sought care at a clinic | ||||
| No | 922 (36.8) | 2508 | Ref | |
| Yes | 201 (52.2) | 385 | 1.31 (1.15–1.47) | <.001 |
| Prior to enrollment, patient sought care with a physician | ||||
| No | 950 (36.4) | 2608 | Ref | |
| Yes | 171 (58.6) | 292 | 1.43 (1.24–1.62) | <.001 |
| Prior to enrollment, patient sought care with a traditional healer | ||||
| No | 1119 (38.7) | 2893 | Ref | |
| Yes | 7 (46.7) | 15 | 1.10 (.54–1.75) | .761 |
| Wealth index quintile | ||||
| 1 (lowest) | 125 (45.8) | 273 | Ref | |
| 2 | 126 (46.2) | 273 | 1.10 (.90–1.30) | .333 |
| 3 | 101 (37.1) | 272 | 0.92 (.71–1.15) | .511 |
| 4 | 104 (38.1) | 273 | 1.05 (.82–1.27) | .697 |
| 5 (highest) | 86 (31.5) | 273 | 1.03 (.80–1.26) | .803 |
| Female head of household, highest education attained | ||||
| None | 123 (38.0) | 324 | Ref | |
| Primary | 161 (42.5) | 379 | 1.14 (.92–1.36) | .224 |
| Secondary | 134 (37.6) | 356 | 0.95 (.75–1.17) | .648 |
| Postsecondary | 128 (42.2) | 303 | 1.02 (.80–1.26) | .848 |
PRs are estimates using mixed-effect models with random effects for country and site hospital and are adjusted for age.
Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; PR, prevalence ratio.
aBecause of heterogeneity in care seeking and antibiotic use by country, antibiotic use among individuals who sought care at a pharmacy appears lower than those who did not seek care at a pharmacy; however, when accounting for differences by country in the mixed-effect model, the PR for this association is higher.