TABLE 4.
150 research findings on the effect of happiness trainings on happiness in 55 studies effect sizes expressed in % change on scale range.
| Nature of happiness training | Method of investigation | ||||
| Cross-sectional had training versus did not have training | Longitudinal before versus after training | ||||
| Change in treated group only | Difference with change in control group | ||||
| Post-intervention | After follow-up | Post-intervention | After follow-up | ||
| Single kind of training | |||||
| Best-possible-self exercise | +5.1 | +1.6 | +0.5 | −2.3 | |
| Cognitive reframing | +13.7 | +12.5 | |||
| Enlightenment about happiness | +0.8 +3.9 | +3.2 | −2.9 | ||
| Goal-setting training | +13.4/+10.4c +2.9 +3.6 +5.1a −1.3 | +11.9/+10.4c +1.1 +1.6a +3,6 | +8.6/+9.5c +0.5a +4.3 0 0 | −2.3a 0 | |
| Laughter yoga | +8.6 | +8.6 | |||
| List and practice perceived ways to happiness | +0.6/+7.2c | ||||
| Practice retrospective sources of happiness | +12.5 | +12.5 | |||
| Live up to one’s values | +1.0 +4.0 | +2.5 | +5.0 +7.8 | +5.8 | |
| Meditation, mindfulness | +2.9 | +4.1 +13.2 +4.6 +18.0 +8.7 | +5.0 +5.6 +17.6 | +8.0 −0.6 +18.0 +9.0 | −0.7 +16.7 |
| Novelty trying | +3.6a | +1.1a | 0 | 0 | |
| Life-review exercise | −0.9/-4.6/0c | ||||
| Positive thinking training | +2.4 +13.7a +4.0 | +7.0 | −0.4 +12.5a +5.0 | −2.9 | |
| • Count blessings and curses | +6.5 0 −3.3a | +0.7 +2.4a | +1.5 | ||
| • Gratitude training | +12.3 −3.3 +14.0/+7.9c +5.4 | +1.5 +2.4 | −0.7 | −0.8 | −0.2 |
| • Kindness training | +13.3/+6.0c | +0.6/−2.9c | +3.6/−4.0c | ||
| • Recall of positive events | +1.9 +0.7a +3.0 +4.9 | +3.5 +1.5a | +4.0 +3.3 | ||
| Savoring training | +1.3 | +0.3 | +1.6/+1.1c | −0.2/-0.1c | |
| Multiple kinds combined | |||||
| Training of multiple mental skills | +19.5 +10.0 +6.7 +3.7 +3.6 +7.8 +5.9 +15.2/+14.8c | +13.9 +30.8 +15.8 +0.4 +8.5 +11.8/+14.8c | +29.0b +8.3 +3.4 +2.0 +3.5 +23.8/+23.4b | +27.9b +10.4 +10.4 −10.8 +23.4/+25.4b | |
| • Enlightenment + exercises | +4.0 +7.8/+19.6c | +3.9 +8.7/+10.9/+18.5c +3.6/+3.0/+10.1c +21.6/+46.1b | |||
| Number of studies and participants | |||||
| Number of studies | 8 | 39 | 22 | 31 | 14 |
| Participants (n) | 630 | 3,539 | 2,126 | 3,562d | 1,664d |
| Mean n | 79 | 91 | 97 | 115 | 119 |
| Median n; range | 61; 3–192 | 43; 10–606 | 53; 10–606 | 73; 23–631 | 89; 37–360 |
| Results | |||||
| Mean change | +5.6% | +6.0% | +7.7% | +4.7% | +1.8% |
| Median change | +6.0% | +4.0% | +4.3% | +3.9% | −0.1% |
Numbers denote % change on scale range and link to a finding page inWorld Database of Happiness. Use control+click to view the page. a: Not included in calculation of mean/median because study appears twice in a column. b: Not included in calculation of mean/median because of a huge decline in happiness in the control group (treated as outliers). c: Average value of multiple measures/multiple comparison groups used in calculation of mean/median. d: Numbers of participants and controls added up.