Table 4.

Cell-based therapies for dentin pulp complex regeneration (cell transplantation strategies).

Cells	Indications/Mechanism/Result	Positive Markers	Negative Markers	Ref.
Stem cells from apical papilla (SCAP)	Present next to immature tooth root apex; remains active even in cases of pulp infections or necrosis due to collateral blood supply; has the potential to differentiate into odontoblast like cells; and shows increased telomerase activity, higher resistance to infection, faster multiplication, and migratory efficiency within root canals	CD49d, CD51/61, CD56, CD73, CD90, CD105, CD106, CD146, CD166	CD14, CD18, CD34, CD45, CD117, CD150	[65,66,67,68]
Dental pulp stem cells (DPSC)	Derived usually from human third molar pulp tissue; has high proliferation and colony-forming ability as dense calcified structures; can differentiate into osteoblasts, odontoblasts, adipocytes, and chondrocytes; and can be used as stem cells in neural disorders due to their ability to induce axonal guidance and differentiate into functional neural cells.	CD9, CD10, CD13, CD29, CD44, CD49d, CD59, CD73, CD90, CD105, CD106, CD146, CD166	CD14, CD31, CD34, CD45, CD117, CD133	[69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77]
Stem cells from human exfoliated deciduous teeth (SHEDs)	SHED can form bone, dentin, and differentiate into other nondental mesenchymal cell derivatives; it has a higher proliferation rate that DPSC and bone marrow-derived MSCs, faster population doubling, and osteoinductive properties; and transplantation has shown the architecture and cellularity of tissue formed by SHED to resemble dental pulp closely.	CD13, CD44, CD73, CD90, CD105, CD146	CD14, CD19, CD34, CD43, CD45	[78,79,80,81,82]
Dental follicle stem cells (DFSC)	It has ectomesenchyme-derived connective tissue surrounding enamel and dental papilla; contains progenitors for cementoblasts, osteoblasts, and PDL; and exhibits the ability to differentiate into PDL fibroblasts, to secrete collagen, and to consequently interact with fibres in the bone and cementum surface, and DFSC from human third molars in vitro shows rapid growth and expresses stem cell markers, including Nestin and Notch 1.	CD9, CD10, CD13, CD29, CD44, CD49d, CD59, CD73, CD90, CD105, CD106, CD166	CD31, CD34, CD45, CD133	[75,83,84,85,86,87]