Table 2.
The impact of electronic cigarettes use and tobacco smoke exposure on MetS.
| Type of Study | Participants/Rodents/Type of Cells | Country | Exposure Assessment | Results | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| E-CIGARETTES | |||||
| Human | Participants of the constancies cohort (n = 18,300, aged 18–96 years), current users of e-cigarette and current or ex-smokers of tobacco. |
France | Questionnaire | Increased risk of MetS associated with e-cigarette use only when not on a diet, p < 0.05. | Lequy et al. [36] |
| Human | Male participants (n = 7505, aged 19 years or older), users of e-cigarette or tobacco or dual users. | Republic of Korea | Urinary cotinine | No differences, however in the adjusted model odds ratio for MetS was 2.79 (p < 0.001) compared with never smokers and 1.57 (p = 0.038) compared with cigarette-only smokers. | Kim et al. [37] |
| Human | Participants (n = 17,656, aged 20–70 years), data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, tobacco or dual users. |
Republic of Korea | Questionnaire | Increased risk of MetS among women and among men using packet of cigarettes for 20 years or more, OR 4.02, 95% CI 1.48–10.93. | Oh et al. [38] |
| TOBACCO SMOKE | |||||
| In vitro-cells | Mouse embryo 3T3-L1 pre-adipocytes (ATCC®CL-173™, ATCC, Manassas, VA, USA). | United States | Exposure to cigarette smoke, electronic cigarettes, and heated tobacco products. | Increased metabolic activity after 24 h (p < 0.05) and 48 h (p < 0.01) of treatment of tobacco smoke. | Zagoriti et al. [33] |
| Animal | Male Wistar rats (young adults). | Jordan | Exposure to waterpipe tobacco smoke. | Increased risk of MetS - abdominal circumference (p < 0.0001), body weight (p = 0.02), systolic blood pressure (p < 0.0001), fasting blood glucose (p < 0.0001). | Al-Sawalha et al. [22] |
| Human | Male participants (n = 5697, aged 26–75 years). |
Japan | Questionnaire | Increased risk of MetS p < 0.05 compared with nonsmokers. | Matsushita et al. [20] |
| Human | Participants (n = 3051, aged 20–60 years). |
United States | Questionnaire | Increased risk of MetS: each year increase in cigarette smoking, odds ratio (95% CI), 1.00 (0.99, 1.02), between current smoker or past, 1.51 (0.80, 2.87) vs. 1.64 (0.97, 2.79). | Yankey et al. [23] |
| Human | Participants (n = 2212, aged 30–49 years). |
Venezuela | Questionnaire | Increased risk of MetS p < 0.001 compared with nonsmokers, in the multivariate analysis: smokers: OR, 1.54; 95% CI, 1.11–2.14, p = 0.010. | Bermudez et al. [24] |
| Human | Participants (n = 694, aged 18–44 years). |
Taiwan | Questionnaire | Increased risk of MetS males higher MetS prevalence than females p < 0.001. | Lin et al. [26] |
| Human | Participants (n = 430, aged 22.52 ± 0.40 years). |
Chile | Questionnaire | Increased risk of MetS, linear regression model: MetS score p < 0.02. | Cheng et al. [27] |
| Human | Participants (n = 1637, aged 70.5–7.9 years). |
Colombia | Questionnaire | Increased risk of MetS, OR = 1.5; 95% CI = 1.0–2.4, p = 0.034. | Barranco-Ruiz et al. [28] |