Table 1.

Various ranges of the Young’s modulus of electrospun scaffolds used in the cardiac tissue and regenerative engineering studies.

Measurement Method	Material(s)	Young’s Modulus (E)	Summary	Ref.
AFM (individual fiber) and tensile test (sheet)	Polyester urethane urea	7.5 MPa (initial E)	Validation of structural finite element model to examine mechanics of elastomeric fibrous biomaterials with or without smooth muscle cells culture.	[86]
Tensile test	Polyester urethane urea	2.5–2.8 MPa (without smooth muscle cells) 0.3–1.7 MPa (with smooth muscle cells)	Integration of smooth muscle cells into biodegradable elastomer fiber matrix.	[87]
Tensile test	Polypyrrole and poly(ε-caprolactone)/gelatin	8–50 MPa	15 wt% polypyrrole (in 0–30%) exhibited most balanced cardiomyocyte conductivity, mechanical properties, and biodegradability.	[59]
Tensile test	Poly(ε-caprolactone)/gelatin (PG)	1.5 MPa	MSC-seeded PG patch restricted expansion of LV wall, reduced scar size, and promoted angiogenesis.	[74]
Tensile test	Poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and poly(ε-caprolactone)/gelatin (PG)	PCL: Dry: 2–28 MPa Wet: 2–25 MPa PG: Dry: 10–49 MPa Wet: 1–5 MPa	Aligned PG scaffold promoted cardiomyocyte attachment and alignment.	[88]
Tensile test	Gelatin	20 kPa	Construct used to study cardiomyocyte behavior (beating observed) and cardiac proteins expressed for studying cardiac function in drug testing and tissue replacement.	[89]
Tensile test	Polyester urethane urea; polyester ether urethane urea	1–2 MPa	Cardiac patch to deliver viral genes to ischemic rat heart.	[25]
Tensile test	Poly(ε-caprolactone)	16–18 MPa	MSC seeded matrix showed stabilized cardiac function and attenuated dilatation of chronic myocardial infarction in rat.	[26]
Tensile test	Poly(l-lactic acid)-co-poly(ε-caprolactone) (PLACL); poly(l-lactic acid)-co-poly(ε-caprolactone)/collagen (PLACL/collagen)	10–18 MPa	PLACL/collagen scaffold is more suitable compared to PLACL for cardiomyocyte growth and attachment, as well functional activity and protein expression.	[90]
Tensile test	Poly(l-lactide-co-caprolactone) and fibroblast-derived ECM	1–5 MPa	Platform for cardiomyocyte culture and coculture with fibroblasts.	[66]
Tensile test	Polyaniline and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)	92 MPa	Development of electrically active scaffold for synchronous cardiomyocyte beating	[91]
Tensile test	Carbon nanotubes embedded aligned poly(glycerol sebacate):gelatin (PG)	93–373 kPa	Contractile properties of cardiomyocytes improved with carbon nanotubes and aligned fibers.	[92]
Tensile test	Polyethylene glycol; polyethylene glycol and poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL); PCL and carboxylated PCL; polyethylene glycol and PCL and carboxylated PCL	Dry: 18 MPa Wet: 0.7 MPa	Embryonic stem cell derived cardiomyocyte differentiation (α-myosin heavy chain expression, intracellular Ca signaling) is promoted on softer substrates.	[21]
Tensile test	Carbon nanotubes embedded poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(d,l-lactide)	10–60 MPa	Cardiomyocyte protein production and physiological pulse frequency was promoted on core-sheath fibers loaded with 5% carbon nanotubes.	[93]
Tensile test	Digested porcine cardiac ECM and polyethylene oxide	203 kPa	Different rates of cell attachment, survival, and proliferation between ECM patch, electrospun scaffold, and hydrogel.	[94,95]
Tensile test	Reduced graphene oxide modified silk	12–13 MPa	Develop silk biomaterials using controllable surface deposition on nanoscale to recapitulate electrical microenvironments for cardiac tissue engineering.	[60]
Tensile test	Nanofiber yarns	20–110 MPa	3D hybrid scaffold using aligned conductive nanofiber yarns within hydrogel to mimic native cardiac tissue structure induced cardiomyocyte orientation, maturation, and anisotropy, as well as formation of endothelialized myocardium after coculture with endothelial cells.	[36]