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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Jan 1.
Published in final edited form as: AIDS. 2021 Jan 1;35(1):101–114. doi: 10.1097/QAD.0000000000002717

Table 3.

Unadjusted smoking-related cancer incidence rates among participants in the MACS and WIHS, stratified by HIV serostatus.

HIV Seronegative HIV Seropositive
No. cancers P-yrs IR per 100,000 IRR [95% CI] P-value No. cancers P-yrs IR per 100,000 IRR [95% CI] P-value
Geographic region of recruitment site
 West coast [ref] 32 18801 170.2 91 24545 370.7
 East coast 76 34552 220.0 1.3 [0.8, 2.0] 0.26 140 36518 383.4 1.0 [0.8, 1.4] 0.86
 Midwest 10 10288 97.2 0.6 [0.3, 1.2] 0.15 40 14819 269.9 0.7 [0.5, 1.1] 0.11
Calendar period
 Before 1996 [ref] 22 24454 90.0 21 16983 123.7
 1996 - 1999 4 4046 98.9 1.1 [0.3, 3.2] 1.00 27 9632 280.3 2.3 [1.2, 4.2] < 0.01
 2000 - 2003 8 7921 101.0 1.1 [0.4, 2.6] 0.92 29 9288 312.2 2.5 [1.4, 4.7] < 0.01
 2004 - 2007 15 8180 183.4 2.0 [1.0, 4.1] 0.06 47 11664 402.9 3.3 [1.9, 5.7] < 0.01
 2008 - 2011 30 7279 412.1 4.6 [2.6, 8.3] < 0.01 60 10275 583.9 4.7 [2.8, 8.2] < 0.01
 2012 - 2015 23 6762 340.1 3.8 [2.0, 7.1] < 0.01 47 10017 469.2 3.8 [2.2, 6.7] < 0.01
 2016 - 2018 16 5001 319.9 3.6 [1.7, 7.1] < 0.01 40 8024 498.5 4.0 [2.3, 7.2] < 0.01
Age (years)
 < 40 [ref] 8 20781 38.5 22 24679 89.1
 40 - 49 18 19444 92.6 2.4 [1.0, 6.4] 0.05 74 26996 274.1 3.1 [1.9, 5.2] < 0.01
 50 - 59 44 14239 309.0 8.0 [3.7, 19.7] < 0.01 117 17876 654.5 7.3 [4.6, 12.2] < 0.01
 ≥ 60 48 9178 523.0 13.6 [6.4, 33.3] < 0.01 58 6332 916.0 10.3 [6.2, 17.6] < 0.01
Race/ethnicity
 Non-Latinx white [ref] 67 43512 154.0 107 34094 313.8
 Non-Latinx black 39 12910 302.1 2.0 [1.3, 3.0] < 0.01 122 27476 444.0 1.4 [1.1, 1.9] 0.01
 Other 12 7207 166.5 1.1 [0.5, 2.0] 0.90 42 14312 293.5 0.9 [0.6, 1.3] 0.79
Baseline educational attainment
 High school or less [ref] 46 14332 321.0 146 30342 481.2
 Some college 26 16147 161.0 0.5 [0.3, 0.8] < 0.01 74 22555 328.1 0.7 [0.5, 0.9] < 0.01
 College graduate 15 13132 114.2 0.4 [0.2, 0.6] < 0.01 22 10979 200.4 0.4 [0.3, 0.7] < 0.01
 At least some postgraduate education 31 19770 156.8 0.5 [0.3, 0.8] < 0.01 29 11879 244.1 0.5 [0.3, 0.8] < 0.01
Annual household income
 < $29,999 [ref] 35 19640 178.2 147 39335 373.7
 ≥ $30,000 33 25318 130.3 0.7 [0.4, 1.2] 0.24 42 20961 200.4 0.5 [0.4, 0.8] < 0.01
BMI (kg/m2)
 Under or normal weight (< 25) [ref] 24 20864 115.0 76 26627 285.4
 Overweight (25 - 29) 18 19427 92.7 0.8 [0.4, 1.5] 0.59 51 20883 244.2 0.9 [0.6, 1.2] 0.44
 Obese (≥ 30) 17 13877 122.5 1.1 [0.5, 2.1] 0.96 29 16224 178.7 0.6 [0.4, 1.0] 0.04
Smoking status
 Never [ref] 16 20340 78.7 20 22155 90.3
 Former 27 21242 127.1 1.6 [0.8, 3.2] 0.17 57 22372 254.8 2.8 [1.7, 5.0] < 0.01
 Current 24 18163 132.1 1.7 [0.9, 3.4] 0.14 92 26447 347.9 3.9 [2.4, 6.6] < 0.01
Cumulative pack-years*
 Never smokers [ref] 37 31805 116.3 49 33141 147.9
 1 - 10 14 12592 111.2 1.0 [0.5, 1.8] 1.00 67 20092 333.5 2.3 [1.5, 3.3] < 0.01
 11 - 20 13 6682 194.6 1.7 [0.8, 3.2] 0.16 52 10057 517.1 3.5 [2.3, 5.3] < 0.01
 21 - 30 11 4644 236.9 2.0 [0.9, 4.1] 0.07 36 5989 601.1 4.1 [2.6, 6.4] < 0.01
 > 30 43 7918 543.1 4.7 [2.9, 7.5] < 0.01 67 6603 1014.7 6.9 [4.7, 10.1] < 0.01
Years since smoking cessation†
 < 10 [ref] 15 10131 148.1 44 13085 336.3
 10 - 19 7 5354 130.7 0.9 [0.3, 2.3] 0.98 8 5555 144.0 0.4 [0.2, 0.9] 0.03
 ≥ 20 5 4171 119.9 0.8 [0.2, 2.3] 0.90 19 3823 497.0 1.5 [0.8, 2.6] 0.20
Alcohol use
 Abstainer [ref] 14 12615 111.0 89 25881 343.9
 > 0 to 7 drinks/week 31 32542 95.3 0.9 [0.4, 1.7] 0.74 54 33666 160.4 0.5 [0.3, 0.7] < 0.01
 > 7 to 12 drinks/week 10 6883 145.3 1.3 [0.5, 3.2] 0.65 9 4644 193.8 0.6 [0.2, 1.1] 0.12
 > 12 drinks/week 10 7467 133.9 1.2 [0.5, 2.9] 0.80 16 6018 265.9 0.8 [0.4, 1.3] 0.41
Smoked an illicit drug
 No [ref] 108 44170 244.5 210 51565 407.3
 Yes 10 19471 51.4 0.2 [0.1, 0.4] < 0.01 61 24317 250.9 0.6 [0.5, 0.8] < 0.01
Injected an illicit drug
 No [ref] 118 63013 187.3 265 74212 357.1
 Yes 0 629 110.5 0.6 [−∞, 2.6] 0.62 6 1670 359.3 1.0 [0.4, 2.2] 1.00
Took illicit drugs other than through smoking/injection
 No [ref] 112 50417 222.1 257 62667 410.1
 Yes 6 13225 45.4 0.2 [0.1, 0.5] < 0.01 14 13215 105.9 0.3 [0.1, 0.4] < 0.01
History of injection drug use
 No [ref] 100 59434 168.3 204 65911 309.5
 Yes 18 4207 427.9 2.5 [1.4, 4.2] < 0.01 67 9964 672.4 2.2 [1.6, 2.9] < 0.01
Any HPV
 No [ref] 0 457 151.7 0 836 82.9
 Yes 3 1240 215.1 1.4 [0.2, ∞] 0.78 4 2388 153.4 1.9 [0.3, ∞] 0.60
Oncogenic HPV
 No [ref] 1 1117 89.5 1 1864 53.6
 Yes 2 581 344.2 3.8 [0.2, 226.8] 0.54 3 1360 220.6 4.1 [0.3, 215.9] 0.41
Lifetime number of sexual partners
 < 30 [ref] 33 10845 304.3 86 21916 392.4
 30 - 59 12 10328 116.2 0.4 [0.2, 0.8] < 0.01 45 11518 390.7 1.0 [0.7, 1.4] 1.00
 60 - 89 9 6458 139.4 0.5 [0.2, 1.0] 0.04 26 5452 476.9 1.2 [0.8, 1.9] 0.44
 ≥ 90 64 36010 177.7 0.6 [0.4, 0.9] 0.02 114 36996 308.1 0.8 [0.6, 1.1] 0.11
Hepatitis C virus at baseline
 No [ref] 99 60196 164.5 188 64552 291.2
 Yes 19 3060 620.9 3.8 [2.2, 6.2] < 0.01 75 10185 736.4 2.5 [1.9, 3.3] < 0.01
CD4 cell/μl count (HIV seropositive only)
 < 200 [ref] - 37 9455 391.3
 200 - 500 - 72 25197 285.7 0.7 [0.5, 1.1] 0.15
 > 500 - 59 31825 185.4 0.5 [0.3, 0.7] < 0.01
HIV viral load detectable (HIV seropositive only)
 No [ref] - 104 33789 307.8
 Yes - 55 24050 228.7 0.7 [0.5, 1.0] 0.09
HIV viral load ≥ 4,000 copies/ml (HIV seropositive only)
 No [ref] - 119 39778 299.2
 Yes - 40 18074 221.3 0.7 [0.5, 1.1] 0.11
Exposure to ART (HIV seropositive only)
 No [ref] - 85 29323 289.9
 Yes - 186 46559 399.5 1.4 [1.1, 1.8] 0.02
History of clinical AIDS (HIV seropositive only)
 No [ref] - 132 55726 236.9
 Yes - 139 20156 689.6 2.9 [2.3, 3.7] < 0.01
Pre-ART nadir CD4 cell/μl count (HIV seropositive only)
 < 200 [ref] - 120 28689 418.3
 ≥ 200 - 139 40954 339.4 0.8 [0.6, 1.0] 0.11
Post-ART nadir CD4 cell/μl count (HIV seropositive only)
 < 200 [ref] - 124 23331 531.5
 ≥ 200 - 82 37673 217.7 0.4 [0.3, 0.5] < 0.01
Peak HIV viral load (copies/ml, HIV seropositive only)
 ≤ 10,000 [ref] - 55 14776 372.2
 > 10,000 - 207 59889 345.6 0.9 [0.7, 1.3] 0.67
Total 118 63642 185.4 271 75882 357.1

Bold indicates statistically significant.

MACS = Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study; WIHS = Women’s Interagency HIV Study; P-years = person-years; IR = incidence rate; IRR = incidence rate ratio; CI = confidence interval

*

: Lagged by 10 years.

†

: Study population limited to former smoking participants.