Table 1.
Use, source, and regulation of POPs and their suggested reproductive health effects in women.
| Chemical | Use/sources | Regulationa | Associated health effects in women | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PeCB and HCB | Fungicide; unintentional production during industrial processes | Annex A and C | Failed implantation, increased spontaneous abortion | Mahalingaiah et al. (36); Younglai et al. (37) |
| HCH (lindane) | Agricultural insecticide and treatment for lice and scabies | Annex A | Increased spontaneous abortion, premature delivery, endometriosis | Upson et al. (38); US Department of Health and Human Services (39) |
| Chlordane | Termite treatment in food crops (e.g. corn and citrus) | Annex A | Altered cycle length | Chen et al. (40) |
| DDT and DDE | Disease vector control (e.g. malaria) | Annex B | Impaired fertilization, impaired lactation, infertility, reduced parity, longer time-to-pregnancy, uterine fibroids | Gesink Law et al. (41); Trabert et al. (42); Younglai et al. (37) (43) |
| PCBs | Electrical insulation, heat transfers, hydraulic systems and capacitors, paints, plasticizers, dyes for carbonless duplicating paper | Annex A and C | Impaired response to ovulation induction, impaired lactation, reduced parity and fecundability, longer time to pregnancy, uterine fibroids | Gennings et al. (44); Gesink Law et al. (41); Trabert et al. (42); Younglai et al. (37) |
| PBDEs | Flame retardants added to fabrics, textiles, plastics, carpets, and electronical appliances | Annex A | Failed implantation, decreased fecundability, endometriosis | Johnson et al. (45); Harley et al. (46); Ploteau et al. (47) |
| PFASs | Consumer products that are water-, oil-, and stain-resistant (e.g. Scotchgard, Teflon) | Annex B | Longer time-to-pregnancy, infertility, endometriosis | Buck Louis et al. (48); Campbell et al. (49); Fei et al. (50) |
aRegulation under the Stockholm Convention: Annex A, elimination of production and use; Annex B, restrict production and use; Annex C, reduce unintentional releases.
DDE: dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene; DDT: dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane; HCB:hexachlorobenzene; HCH: hexachlorocyclohexane; PBDE: polybrominated diphenyl ether; PCB: polychlorinated biphenyl; PeCB: pentachlorobenzene; PFAS: perfluoroalkyl substance.