Table 3. Results of the three-level, meta-regression analyses with moderators of the prevalences of sending, receiving and forwarding sexts.
| Sending | Receiving | Forwarding | ||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| k | eff | (95% CI) | Tau2 | p | k | eff | (95% CI) | Tau2 | p | k | eff | (95% CI) | Tau2 | p | Comparison | |
| Document type | .73 | .70 | .69 | .95 | .95 | .25 | QE (103) = 12085.73, p < .01 | |||||||||
| Not peer-reviewed | 8 | .13 | (.07, .21) | 8 | .31 | (.20, .44) | 3 | .09 | (.05, .18) | QM (3) = 3.38, p = .34 | ||||||
| Peer-reviewed | 49 | .14 | (.12, .17) | 31 | .30 | (.26, .36) | 10 | .06 | (.04, .08) | |||||||
| Sampling technique | .53 | < .01 | .43 | < .01 | .55 | < .01 | QE (103) = 7869.97, p < .01 | |||||||||
| Non-probabilistic | 39 | .19 | (.15, .22) | 23 | .39 | (.34, .45) | 9 | .10 | (.07, .13) | QM (3) = 32.88, p < .01 | ||||||
| Probabilistic | 18 | .08 | (.06, .11) | 16 | .19 | (.15, .24) | 4 | .04 | (.03, .07) | |||||||
| Administration procedure | .75 | .08 | .56 | < .01 | QE (85) = 10532.89, p < .01 | |||||||||||
| Interview (PI or TI) | 3 | .07 | (.03, .15) | 6 | .18 | (.11, .28) | QM (2) = 7.28, p = .03 | |||||||||
| Self-reported | 50 | .15 | (.12, .18) | 30 | .34 | (.29, .39) | ||||||||||
| Quality of the measure | .74 | .08 | .61 | .16 | .57 | < .01 | QE (92) = 10165.23, p < .01 | |||||||||
| Significant risk | 41 | .12 | (.10, .15) | 28 | .28 | (.24, .33) | 10 | .06 | (.04, .07) | QM (3) = 18.67, p < .01 | ||||||
| Low risk | 10 | .19 | (.12, .28) | 7 | .37 | (.26, .49) | 2 | .15 | (.09, .25) | |||||||
| Temporality of the measure | .74 | .71 | .67 | .42 | .51 | .01 | QE (103) = 11709.47, p < .01 | |||||||||
| < Six months | 9 | .13 | (.08, .20) | 5 | .27 | (.17, .38) | 3 | .03 | (.02, .06) | QM (3) = 9.54, p = .02 | ||||||
| > Six months | 48 | .14 | (.12, .17) | 34 | .32 | (.27, .37) | 10 | .08 | (.06, .11) | |||||||
| Geographical origin of samples a | ||||||||||||||||
| Europe | 23 | .13 | (.10, .17) | 14 | .31 | (.24, .39) | 4 | .10 | (.05, .19) | QE (38) = 7482.50, p < .01 | ||||||
| QM (3) = 158.32, p < .01 | ||||||||||||||||
| Spain | 6 | .16 | (.10, .25) | 7 | .29 | (.20, .41) | 3 | .14 | (.08, .21) | |||||||
| Belgium | 4 | .16 | (.08, .30) | 2 | .27 | (.25, .28) | ||||||||||
| Netherlands | 2 | .11 | (.03, .34) | |||||||||||||
| Czech Republic | 4 | .16 | (.08, .30) | |||||||||||||
| Geographical origin of samples a | ||||||||||||||||
| North America | 28 | .14 | (.10, .18) | 21 | .26 | (.20, .33) | 7 | .07 | (.04, .10) | QE (53) = 3616.95, p < .01 | ||||||
| QM (3) = 1327.73, p < .01 | ||||||||||||||||
| Canada | 2 | .14 | (.13, .16) | 2 | .27 | (.26, .29) | ||||||||||
| Northern America | 25 | .17 | (.12, .22) | 18 | .25 | (.18, .33) | 6 | .08 | (.05, .11) | |||||||
| South America | 2 | .26 | (.12, .47) | 3 | .43 | (.29, .58) | 1 | .18 | (.12, .25) | QE (3) = 95.03, p < .01 | ||||||
| QM (3) = 97.77, p < .01 | ||||||||||||||||
| Ecuador | 2 | .26 | (.12, .47) | 2 | .48 | (.29, .67) | ||||||||||
| Asia | 2 | .22 | (.11, .37) | |||||||||||||
| Content of messages | .62 | < .01 | .54 | < .01 | ||||||||||||
| Text | 6 | .22 | (.18, .27) | 2 | .37 | (.32, .43) | QE (78) = 5854.67, p < .01 | |||||||||
| QM (2) = 366.07, p < .01 | ||||||||||||||||
| Images or videos | 37 | .12 | (.10, .15) | 27 | .27 | (.23, .32) | ||||||||||
| Explicitness of images / videos b | ||||||||||||||||
| Nude | 10 | .15 | (.11, .21) | 10 | .30 | (.21, 42) | 5 | .09 | (.08, .10) | QE (24) = 1438.82, p < .01 | ||||||
| QM (3) = 2175.17, p < .01 | ||||||||||||||||
| Not nude | 1 | .15 | (.11, .19) | 2 | .05 | (.00, .51) | QE (2) = 65.58, p < .01 | |||||||||
| QM (2) = 119.76, p < .01 | ||||||||||||||||
| Context c | ||||||||||||||||
| Romantic | 5 | .19 | (.09, .35) | 2 | .30 | (.27, .34) | QE (5) = 202.64, p < .01 | |||||||||
| QM (2) = 442.69, p < .01 | ||||||||||||||||
| Willingly d | ||||||||||||||||
| Voluntary | 5 | .13 | (.07, .23) | - | - | - | - | - | - | Q (4) = 253.01, p < .01 | ||||||
| Unsolicited | - | - | - | 4 | .23 | (.15, .34) | - | - | - | Q (3) = 31.83, p < .01 | ||||||
| Without consent | - | - | - | - | - | - | 2 | .04 | (.02, .06) | Q (1) = 7.96, p < .01 | ||||||
| Sex differences | .61 | .68 | .88 | .77 | .68 | .07 | QE (112) = 5355.83, p < .01 | |||||||||
| QM (3) = 3.45, p = .54 | ||||||||||||||||
| Women | 31 | .17 | (.13, .21) | 21 | .34 | (.26, .41) | 8 | .07 | (.05, .10) | |||||||
| Men | 30 | .16 | (.13, .20) | 20 | .39 | (.31, .47) | 8 | .12 | (.09, .16) | |||||||
| Mean age | 37 | < .01 | 25 | < .01 | 7 | .05 | QE (63) = 193.77, p < .01 | |||||||||
| 12 | .04 | (.02, .06) | .13 | (.07, .22) | .02 | (.01, .07) | QM (3) = 148.00, p < .01 | |||||||||
| 14 | .09 | (.07, .12) | .23 | (.18, .30) | .05 | (.03, .09) | ||||||||||
| 16 | .21 | (.17, .25) | .39 | (.32, .46) | .10 | (.06, .19) | ||||||||||
“k” = number of studies included, “eff” = effect size (prevalence), “95% CI” = 95% confidence interval, “Q” = Cochran’s Q for heterogeneity detection, “QE” = within-categories statistic to test the model misspecification, “QM” = between-categories statistic to test the influence of the moderator variable on the prevalence rates, “Tau2” = Residual heterogeneity for the levels of the inner factor, “p” = p-values for the test statistics.
a Prevalence estimates considering the geographical origin of samples were not compared with a significance test, but are provided for descriptive purposes only.
b Insufficient “k” to make comparisons.
c The context in which sexting was carried out was not specified or was not clearly defined in the rest of the studies.
d No studies were found specifying non-voluntariness or the requesting or expression of consent in the experiences of sending, receiving or forwarding sexts.