Table 3.

Immunological mechanisms of VLP-based vaccines complement other adjuvants like MCT^® and may provide added benefit (29, 43, 45, 47–66–68).

VLP scaffold	MCT®
Repetitive and native antigen display - optimal BCR-crosslinking (PAMP; Pathogen Associated Molecular Pattern)	Local inflammation (early innate responses)
Complement activation	Inflammasome activation
Recognition by natural Abs and other innate humoral factors	DC activation
	Particulate for APC targeting
	B cell activation T cell activation
Fast – transient migration to draining lymph nodes	Depot – prolong immune-exposure
Co-delivered adjuvant (e.g., TLR-ligands)