TABLE 1.
Variablesa |
HC |
T2DM |
MDD |
BD |
SZ |
Statistical analyses |
|
(n = 28) | (n = 30) | (n = 35) | (n = 42) | (n = 30) | F(p)e | Post hoc testg | |
Sociodemographic variables | |||||||
Sexb,f,h | 18(64%) | 9(30%) | 24(68%) | 21(50%) | 7(23%) | 20.1**** | SZ, T2DM < HC; SZ < BD SZ, T2DM < MDD |
Age (years) | 36.6(14.5) | 57.3(9.3) | 47.3(11.8) | 50(9.5) | 40.8(10.7) | 15.3**** | HC < SZ, MDD, BD, T2DM SZ < BD, T2DM MDD < T2DM |
Years of Education | 16.1(3.3) | 12.5(5.8) | 11.9(4.3) | 11.6(4.4) | 10.4(3.3) | 7.1**** | SZ, BD, MDD, T2DM < HC |
Motor Lateralityc | 23(82%) | 27(90%) | 34(97%) | 38(90%) | 28(93%) | NS | |
Clinical variables | |||||||
HDRSd | 2.0(1.8) | 3.9(3.9) | 11.6(8.3) | 6.4(4.4) | 7.0(5.8) | 14.2**** | HC < BD, SZ, MDD T2DM, BD, SZ < MDD |
YMRSd | 0.8(1.6) | 1.5(2.2) | 1.9(2.6) | 3.5(4.5) | 3.2(4.9) | 3.4** | HC < BD |
PANSS positived | 7.0(0.0) | 7.0(0.0) | 7.0(0.3) | 8.5(3.8) | 10.6(4.3) | 10.6**** | HC, T2DM, MDD, BD < SZ |
PANSS negatived | 7.0(0.0) | 7.1(0.7) | 8.4(4.9) | 10.3(6.5) | 18.6(10.1) | 20.1**** | HC, T2DM, MDD, BD < SZ |
PANSS generald | 16.0(0.0) | 17.0(2.3) | 19.8(8.6) | 22.7(9.9) | 31.8(12.7) | 16.9**** | HC < BD, SZ T2DM, MDD, BD < SZ |
PANSS totald | 30.0(0.0) | 31.2(2.8) | 35.4(13.4) | 41.6(18.9) | 61.1(24.4) | 20.2**** | HC < BD, SZ T2DM, MDD, BD < SZ |
CGId | 1.0(0.0) | 1.9(1.0) | 3.3(1.2) | 3.5(0.7) | 4.5(1.0) | 63.8**** | HC < T2DM, MDD, BD, SZ T2DM < MDD, BD, SZ MDD, BD < SZ |
Age of onset (years) | - | 44.3(9.8) | 35.3(12.1) | 26.5(8.6) | 25.6(8.0) | 16.8**** | SZ < MDD, T2DM BD < MDD, T2DM MDD < T2DM |
Illness duration (years) | - | 13.0(9.0) | 12.0(11.6) | 23.4(11.5) | 15.2(8.4) | 25.9**** | MDD, T2DM, SZ < BD |
BMI (kg/m2) | 24.9(5.1) | 30.4(4.3) | 28.6(5.8) | 29.7(5.6) | 31.9(5.4) | 7.0**** | HC < BD, T2DM,SZ |
a Expressed as mean(standard deviation) except when indicated, b female n(%), c right-handed n(%). d Lower scores represent a better outcome. e ANOVA. f Chi-squared test. g Bonferroni test. h Mann–Whitney U test. Abbreviations: HC = Healthy control, T2DM = Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus, MDD = Major Depressive Disorder, BD = Bipolar Disorder, SZ = Schizophrenia, HDRS = Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression, YMRS = Young Mania Rating Scale, PANSS = Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale, CGI = Clinical global impression, BMI = Body Mass Index, ANOVA = Analysis of variance, NS = not significant. (NS = p > 0.05; *p ≤ 0.05; **p ≤ 0.01; ***p ≤ 0.001; ****p ≤ 0.0001).