TABLE 2.
Outcomes variables at Time 1 and Time 2 (Z-scores).
|
HC |
T2DM |
MDD |
BD |
SZ |
Statistical analyses |
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| T1 (n = 28) | T2 (n = 19) | T1 (n = 30) | T2 (n = 25) | T1 (n = 35) | T2 (n = 25) | T1 (n = 42) | T2 (n = 29) | T1 (n = 30) | T2 (n = 27) | T1 F(p)b | Post hoc testd | T2 F(p)b | Post hoc testd | |
| GS measures | ||||||||||||||
| RHG | 0.0(1.0) | −0.1(0.8) | 0.2(1.0) | 0.1(1.1) | −0.5(0.9) | −0.7(0.7) | −0.2(1.0) | −0.5(0.9) | 0.0(0.9) | −0.2(0.8) | 4.0** | MDD < SZ, T2DM | 3.8** | MDD < T2DM |
| LHG | 0.0(1.0) | −0.2(0.9) | 0.2(1.1) | 0.2(1.1) | −0.5(1.0) | −0.8(0.9) | −0.1(1.1) | −0.3(1.0) | 0.0(1.0) | −0.2(0.9) | 4.1** | MDD < BD, T2DM | 4.7*** | MDD < BD, T2DM |
| GHGS | 0.0(1.0) | −0.2(0.8) | 0.2(1.1) | 0.2(1.1) | −0.6(1.0) | −0.8(0.8) | −0.1(1.1) | −0.4(0.9) | 0.0(1.0) | −0.2(0.9) | 4.2** | MDD < BD, SZ, T2DM | 4.3** | MDD < T2DM |
| RLP | 0.0(1.0) | 0.3(0.8) | 0.4(0.9) | 0.7(0.7) | −0.1(0.8) | 0.2(0.7) | 0.1(0.9) | 0.2(0.7) | 0.7(0.6) | 0.8(0.6) | 5.7**** | MDD < T2DM, SZ; HC < SZ | 4.8*** | MDD, HC < SZ |
| LLP | 0.0(1.0) | 0.3(0.8) | 0.6(1.1) | 0.9(0.9) | −0.1(0.9) | 0.3(0.8) | 0.3(1.0) | 0.5(0.9) | 0.9(0.7) | 0.9(0.7) | 6.3**** | HC, MDD < T2DM, SZ | 4.2** | MDD, HC < SZ |
| RTP | 0.0(1.0) | 0.2(0.6) | 0.4(1.1) | 0.8(0.9) | −0.3(0.9) | 0.0(0.8) | 0.1(1.1) | 0.3(1.0) | 0.6(0.6) | 0.5(0.7) | 5.0*** | MDD < T2DM, SZ | 3.6** | MDD < T2DM |
| LTP | 0.0(1.0) | 0.2(0.8) | 0.6(1.2) | 1.0(1.0) | −0.2(1.0) | 0.0(0.8) | 0.2(1.2) | 0.3(1.2) | 0.8(0.8) | 0.7(0.9) | 6.2**** | HC, MDD < T2DM, SZ | 4.9*** | MDD, HC < T2DM |
| GPS | 0.0(1.0) | 0.3(0.7) | 0.5(1.1) | 0.9(0.9) | −0.2(0.9) | 0.1(0.7) | 0.2(1.1) | 0.4(0.9) | 0.8(0.7) | 0.8(0.7) | 6.3**** | MDD < T2DM, SZ; HC < SZ | 4.9*** | MDD < SZ, T2DM; HC < SZ |
| Social functioning | ||||||||||||||
| FAST | 0.0(1.0) | 0.0(0.8) | −1.2(1.8) | −1.0(1.5) | −3.7(2.6) | −3.5(2.5) | −4.3(1.9) | −3.9(1.9) | −5.6(2.4) | −4.7(2.5) | 22.3**** | SZ < BD, MDD, T2DM, HC BD, MDD < T2DM, HC | 9.7**** | SZ, BD, MDD < T2DM SZ, BD, MDD < HC |
| SF-36 | 0.0(1.0) | 0.2(0.5) | −1.2(1.8) | −1.0(1.7) | −3.9(2.1) | −3.8(2.7) | −2.6(1.9) | −2.6(1.8) | −1.9(1.9) | −2.3(1.9) | 14.4**** | MDD < BD, SZ, T2DM, HC BD, SZ < HC | 9.1**** | MDD < BD, SZ, T2DM, HC |
| WQB | 0.0(1.0) | 0.3(1.1) | −0.6(1.2) | −0.5(1.4) | −2.2(1.2) | −2.2(1.8) | −1.6(1.2) | −1.9(1.1) | −1.3(1.0) | −1.2(1.2) | 13.7**** | MDD < SZ, T2DM, HC BD, SZ < HC | 7.8**** | MDD < SZ, T2DM, HC |
| Cognitive performance | ||||||||||||||
| IQ | 0.0(1.0) | 1.5(1.0) | −0.2(1.2) | 0.7(1.2) | 0.0(1.3) | 1.0(1.1) | 0.0(1.3) | 0.1(1.4) | −1.0(1.5) | 0.1(1.1) | 3.4** | SZ < T2DM, MDD, BD | 4.7*** | BD,SZ < HC |
| CRa,c,e | 6(21%) | 2(10%) | 16(53%) | 11(44%) | 16(46%) | 12(48%) | 23(55%) | 18(62%) | 22(73%) | 20(74%) | 16.4** | HC < T2DM, MDD, BD, SZ MDD < SZ | 20.1**** | HC < T2DM,MDD, BD, SZ MDD, T2DM < SZ |
| GCS | 0.0(0.5) | 0.3(0.6) | −0.9(0.8) | −0.8(0.9) | −0.8(0.8) | −0.7(0.9) | −1.3(1.0) | −1.1(0.9) | −1.7(1.0) | −1.5(0.9) | 16.6**** | SZ < BD, T2DM, MDD, HC BD < T2DM, HC | 14.6**** | SZ < BD, T2DM,MDD,HC BD, MDD < HC |
Expressed as mean (standard deviation) except when indicated.aLow n(%).bANCOVA.cChi-squared test.dBonferroni test.eMann–Whitney U test.HC, healthy control; T2DM, type-2 diabetes mellitus; MDD, major depressive disorder; BD, bipolar disorder; SZ, schizophrenia; T1, Time 1; T2, Time 2; RHG, right handgrip; LHG, left handgrip; GHGS, Global Handgrip Score; RLP, right lateral/key pinch; LLP, left lateral/key pinch; RTP, right tip pinch; LTP, left tip pinch; GPS, Global Pinch Score; WQB, WHO-QoL-BREF; IQ, Intelligence Quotient; CR, cognitive reserve; GCS, Global Cognitive Score; ANCOVA, analysis of covariance; SF-36, Short-form 36; FAST, Functional Assessment Short Test; NS, not significant.NSp > 0.05; *p ≤ 0.05; **p ≤ 0.01; ***p ≤ 0.001; and ****p ≤ 0.0001.