Table 1.
Phytochemicals (n = 78) with anti-CoV potency, plant source and mode of inhibition.
| Sl. No | Phytochemical (chemical class) | Taxonomic name (family) | Concentration (IC50/EC50) (μM) | Mode/target of inhibition | Tested against type of CoV | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Abietane (T) | Lycopus europaeus L. (Lamiaceae) | 0.1–10 (1.39) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [26] |
| 2. | Aloe emodin (AQ) | Isatis tinctoria L. (Brassicaceae) | 3.70–370.3 (8.3) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [27] |
| 3. | Amentoflavone (P) |
Torreya nucifera (L.) Siebold & Zucc. (Taxaceae) |
1-1000 (8.3) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [28] |
| 4. | Apigenin (P) |
Torreya nucifera (L.) Siebold & Zucc. (Taxaceae) |
1-1000 (280.8) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [28] |
| 5. | Bavachinin (P) | Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. (Leguminosae) | 1-150 (38.4) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [29] |
| 6. | Berbamine (A) | Berberis amurensis Rupr. (Berberidaceae) | 0.01–20 (1.48) | Restrict viral entry | HCoV-NL63 | [30] |
| 7. | β-sitosterol (S) | Isatis tinctoria L. (Brassicaceae) | 3.70–370.3 (12.10) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [27] |
| 8. | Betulonic acid (T) | Juniperus formosana Hayata (Cupressaceae) | 8-80 (10) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [26] |
| 9. | Broussochalcone A (P) | Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. (Moraceae) | 0.1–200 (88.1 for 3CLpro and 9.2 for PLpro) | 3CLpro and PLpro | SARS-CoV-3CLpro and PLPro enzyme assay | [31] |
| 10. | Broussochalcone B (P) | Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. (Moraceae) | 0.1–200 (57.8 for 3CLpro and 11.6 for PLpro) | 3CLpro and PLpro | [31] | |
| 11. | Broussoflavan A (P) | Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. (Moraceae) | 0.1–200 (92.4 for 3CLpro and 30.4 for PLpro) | 3CLpro and PLpro | SARS-CoV-3CLpro and PLPro enzyme assay | [31] |
| 12. | Catechin gallate (P) | Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (Theaceae) | 0.22–2.26 (1.39) | Viral replication | SARS-CoV | [32] |
| 13. | Cepharanthine (A) |
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don (Apocynaceae) |
0.82–16.5 (9.9–15.67) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [33] |
| 14. | Cinnamtannin B (P) | Cinnamomum verum J.Presl (Lauraceae) | 0-500 (32.9) | Pseudovirus infection | SARS-CoV | [34] |
| 15. | Chrysin (P) | Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Lamiaceae) | 0-400 (200) | Restrict viral entry | SARS-CoV | [[21], [35]] |
| 16. | Corylifol A (P) | Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. (Fabaceae) | 1-150 (32.3) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [29] |
| 17. | Curcumin (T) | Curcuma longa L. (Zingiberaceae) | 8-80 (40) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [26] |
| 18. | Diplacone (P) | Paulownia tomentosa Steud. (Paulowniaceae) | 0.1–100 (10.4) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [13] |
| 19. | Emetine (T) |
Carapichea ipecacuanha (Brot.) L. Andersson (Rubiaceae) |
0.1–5 (0.30, 1.43, 0.34, 0.12) | RNA, DNA and protein synthesis | HCoV-OC43, HCoV-NL63, MERS-CoV. | [30] |
| 20. | Emodin (AQ) | Rheum officinale Baill. (Polygonaceae) | 0.1–400 (200) | Restrict viral entry | SARS-CoV | [35] |
| 21. | Fangchinoline (A) | Panax ginseng C.A.Mey. (Araliaceae) | 2-20 (1.01 ± 0.07) | 3CLpro | HCoV-OC43 | [14] |
| 22. | Ferruginol (T) |
Chamaecyparis obtuse var. formosana Hayata (Cupressaceae) |
0.01–10 (1.39) | CoV-replication | SARS-CoV | [26] |
| 23. | Gallocatechin gallate (P) | Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (Theaceae) | 0.002–2.183 (1.39) | Viral replication | SARS-CoV | [32] |
| 24. | Glycyrrhizic acid (T) | Glycyrrhiza Radix (Glycyrrhiza uralensis, G. glabra and G. inflata) (Fabaceae) | 0.1–1000 (365) | Viral replication | SARS-CoV | [36] |
| 25. | Hesperetin (P) | Isatis tinctoria L. (Cruciferae) | 3.31–331.1 (36.50) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [27] |
| 26. | Hinokinin (L) | Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. (Phyllanthaceae) | 8-80 (>100) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [26] |
| 27. | Homoharringtonine (A) | Cephalotaxus fortunei Hook. (Taxaceae) | 0.01–0.07 (0.012) | 3CLpro | Murine CoV | [37] |
| 28. | 4-Hydroxy-isolonchocarpin (P) | Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. (Moraceae) | 0.1–200 (35.4) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [31] |
| 29. | Indigo (OC) | Isatis tinctoria L. (Brassicaceae) | 0.1–1000 (752) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [27] |
| 30. | Isobavachalcone (P) | Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. (Fabaceae) | 1-150 (18.3) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [29] |
| 31. | Juglanin (P) | Taxus caespitosa Nakai (Taxaceae) | 10-40 (2.3) | Blocks the 3a channel | SARS-CoV | [38] |
| 32. | Kazinol A (P) | Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. (Moraceae) | 0.1–200 (66.20) | PLpro | SARS-CoV PLpro enzyme assay | [31] |
| 33. | Kazinol B (P) | Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. (Moraceae) | 0.1–200 (31.40) | PLpro | SARS-CoV PLpro enzyme assay | [31] |
| 34. | Kazinol F (P) | Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. (Moraceae) | 0.1–200 (27.8) | PLpro | SARS-CoV PLpro enzyme assay | [31] |
| 35. | Kazinol J (P) | Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. (Moraceae) | 0.1–200 (15.20) | PLpro | SARS-CoV PLpro enzyme assay | [31] |
| 36. | Luteolin (P) |
Torreya nucifera (L.) Siebold & Zucc. (Taxaceae) |
1-1000 (20.2) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [25] |
| 37. | Lycorine (A) | Lycoris aurea (L’Hér.) Herb. (Amaryllidaceae) | 0.01–5 (0.15, 0.47, 1.63, 0.31) | CoV-replication | HCoV-OC43, HCoV-NL63, MERS-CoV | [30] |
| 38. | Mimulone (P) | Paulownia tomentosa Steud. (Paulowniaceae) | 0.01–100 (14.4 ± 0.27) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [13] |
| 39. | Myricetin (P) | Isatis tinctoria L. (Brassicaceae) | 0.01–10 (2.74) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [39] |
| 40. | Neobavaisoflavone (P) | Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. (Fabaceae) | 1-150 (18.3 ± 1.1) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [29] |
| 41. | Papyriflavonol A (P) | Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. (Moraceae) | 0.1–200 (3.7) | PLpro | SARS-CoV PLpro enzyme assay | [31] |
| 42. | Procyanidin A2 (P) | Cinnamomum verum J.Presl (Lauraceae) | 0.1–500 (29.9 ± 3.3) | Pseudovirus infection | SARS-CoV | [34] |
| 43. | Procyanidin B1 (P) | Cinnamomum verum J.Presl (Lauraceae) | 0.1–500 (41.3) | Pseudovirus infection | SARS-CoV | [34] |
| 44. | Psoralidin (P) | Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. (Fabaceae) | 1-150 (4.2) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [29] |
| 45. | Quercetin (P) | Torreya nucifera (L.) Siebold & Zucc. (Taxaceae) | 1-200 (8.6) | PLpro | SARS-CoV-PLpro enzyme assay | [31] |
| 46. | Rosmariquinone (T) | Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Lamiaceae) | 1-1000 (88.0) | CoV-replication | SARS-CoV | [40] |
| 47. | Rhein (G) | Houttuynia cordata Thunb (Saururaceae) | 0.1–400 (200) | Restrict viral entry | SARS-CoV | [35] |
| 48. | Saikosaponin A (T) | Bupleurum chinense DC (Apiaceae) | 5-25 (8.6) | 3CLpro | HCoV-22E9 | [41] |
| 49. | Saikosaponin B2 (T) | Bupleurum chinense DC (Apiaceae) | 5-25 (1.7) | Restrict viral entry | HCoV-22E9 | [41] |
| 50. | Saikosaponin C (T) | Bupleurum chinense DC (Apiaceae) | 5-25 (19.9) | CoV-replication | HCoV-22E9 | [41] |
| 51. | Saikosaponin D (T) | Bupleurum chinense DC (Apiaceae) | 5-25 (13.2) | CoV-replication | HCoV-22E9 | [41] |
| 52. | Savinin (L) | Chamaecyparis obtusa var. formosana (Hayata) Hayata (Cupressaceae) | 1-10 (9.1) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [26] |
| 53. | Scutellarein (P) | Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi (Lamiaceae) | 0.01–10 (0.08) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [39] |
| 54. | Silvestrol (OC) | Aglaia foveolata Pannell (Meliaceae) | 0.6–20 (40) | Cap-mRNA translation | HCoV-229 E | [42] |
| 55. | Sinigrin (G) | Isatis tinctoria L. (Brassicaceae) | 2.52–25.8 (217) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [27] |
| 56. | Tanshinone I (T) | Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Labiatae) | 1-1000 (1.6) | PLpro | SARS-CoV PLpro enzyme assay | [40] |
| 57. | Tetrandrine (A) | Stephania tetrandra (Menispermaceae) | 2-20 (0.33) | CoV-replication | HCoV-OC43-MRC-5 cells | [14] |
| 58. | Tetra-O-galloyl-β-d-glucose (P) | Phyllanthus emblica L. (Euphorbiaceae) | 0.1-104 (2.86) | Restrict viral entry | SARS-CoV | [43] |
| 59. | Theaflavin-3,3′-digallate (P) | Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (Theaceae) | 4-20 (9.5) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [44] |
| 60. | Tomentin A (P) | Paulownia tomentosa Steud. (Paulowniaceae) | 0.1–100 (6.2) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [13] |
| 61. | Tomentin B (P) | Paulownia tomentosa Steud. (Paulowniaceae) | 0.1–100 (6.1) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [44] |
| 62. | Tomentin C (P) | Paulownia tomentosa Steud. (Paulowniaceae) | 0.1–100 (11.6) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [44] |
| 63. | Tomentin D (P) | Paulownia tomentosa Steud. (Paulowniaceae) | 0.1–100 (12.5) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [44] |
| 64. | Tomentin E (P) | Paulownia tomentosa Steud. (Paulowniaceae) | 0.1–100 (5.0) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [44] |
| 65. | Tylophorine (A) | Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. (Apocynaceae) | (0.008–1.47) (0.018) |
3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [45] |
| 66. | 3β-Friedelanol (T) | Euphorbia neriifolia L. (Euphorbiaceae) | 11.68 (132.4%) | 3CLpro | HCoV | [46] |
| 67. | 3 β,12-diacetoxy abieta-6,8,11,13-tetraene (T) | Juniperus formosana Hayata (Cupressaceae) | 365 (193) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [26] |
| 68. | 3-Isotheaflavin-3-gallate (P) | Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (Theaceae) | 4-20 (7) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [44] |
| 69. | 3′-(3-methyl but-2-enyl)-3′,47-tri-hydroxy flavane (P) |
Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L’Hér. ex Vent. (Moraceae) |
0-200 (35.8) | PLpro | SARS-CoV PLpro enzyme assay | [31] |
| 70. | 3′-O-methyl diplacol (P) | Paulownia tomentosa Steud. (Paulowniaceae) | 0.1–100 (9.5) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [13] |
| 71. | 3′-O-methyl diplacone (P) | Paulownia tomentosa Steud. (Paulowniaceae) | 0.1–100 (13.2) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [13] |
| 72. | 4′-O-methyl diplacol (P) | Paulownia tomentosa Steud. (Paulowniaceae) | 0.1–100 (9.2) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [13] |
| 73. | 4′-O-methyl diplacone (P) | Paulownia tomentosa Steud. (Paulowniaceae) | 0.1–100 (12.7) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [13] |
| 74. | 4′-O-methyl-bavachalcone (P) | Cullen corylifolium (L.) Medik. (Paulowniaceae) | 1-150 (10.1) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [29] |
| 75. | 6-geranyl-4′,5,7-tri-hydroxy-3′,5′-di-methoxy flavanone (P) | Paulownia tomentosa Steud. (Paulowniaceae) | 0.1–100 (13.9) | PLpro | SARS-CoV | [13] |
| 76. | 7-β-Hydroxydeoxy cryptojaponol (T) |
Cryptomeria japonica (Thunb. ex L.f.) D.Don (Cupressaceae) |
365 (111) | 3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [34] |
| 77. | 7-Methoxy-cryptopleurine (A) | Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merr. (Apocynaceae) | (0.1–100) (20) |
3CLpro | SARS-CoV | [45] |
| 78. | 8β-hydroxy abieta-9 (11),13-dien-12-one (T) | Chamaecyparis obtusa var. formosana (Hayata) Hayata (Cupressaceae) | 0.1–10 (1.47) | CoV-replication | SARS-CoV | [46] |
Abbreviations: MRC-5: human embryo lung fibroblast; STCI-CoV: Swine testicular cells infected with CoV; 3CLpro: cysteine-like protease; PLpro: papain-like protease; PED-CoV: porcine epidemic diarrhea coronavirus; A: alkaloid; AQ: anthraquinone; G: glucoside/glycoside; L: lignin; P: polyphenol; Q: quinolone; T: terpene/terpenoid; S: sterol; MERS-CoV: Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus; HCoV-OC43: human coronavirus OC43; HCoV-NL63: human coronavirus NL63.