Table 1.

Nanoparticles, assisting immunotherapy in breast cancer

Biomaterial	Cargo	Effects	Refs
Lipid-based
Liposome	Ursolic acid	Inhibition of STAT5 phosphorylation and IL-10 secretion	[64]
Liposome modified with PEG	Cyclic diguanylate monophosphate and monophosphoryl lipid A	Increased number of APCs and NK cells	[62]
Liposome	cGAMP	Conversion of M2-like phenotype towards M1-like phenotype, enhancement of MHC and costimulatory molecules	[61]
Liposome	Paclitaxel, thioridazine and HY19991	Infiltration of CD4 + and CD8 + T cells into the tumors and consequent attacking of CSCs	[97]
Nanoliposome	Multi-epitope peptides derived from cancer cells	Improved cytotoxic T cell responses and production of IFN-γ	[70]
Lipid calcium phosphate modified with mannose	MUC1 mRNA	Induction of a strong, antigen-specific, in vivo cytotoxic T lymphocyte response against TNBC	[74]
Lipid nanoparticle	Colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor and mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitors	Increased M1-like phenotype at tumor microenvironment	[69]
Cationic lipid-assisted nanoparticles	Lactate dehydrogenase A-siRNA	Neutralized tumor pH and increased infiltration of CD8 + T and NK cells	[80]
Polymer-based Protein/polysacharide based
PBAEs	cyclin-dependent kinase 5—CRISPR-Cas9	Downregulation of PD-L1 expression	[76]
PEG-chitosan-lactate	A2 adenosine receptor	Blockage of PKA/CREB signaling pathway, leading to Treg inhibition	[78]
Chitosan-lactate	CD69-specific siRNA	Generation of inflammatory cytokines such as IFN-γ and IL-17	[79]
PLGA coated with human cancer cell membrane fractions	–	Enhanced CD8 + and CD4 + T-lymphocyte populations	[72]
PLGA	CpG coated tumor antigen	Increased expression of CD80/86 and elevated secretion of IL-12	[73]
PLGA-b-PEG modified with triphenyl phosphonium	Zinc phthalocyanine	Release of tumor antigens and thereby activation of DCs, and overexpression of IFN-γ	[96]
Albumin	doxorubicin and T780	Activation of T cell-mediated antitumor immune response and induction of ICD	[89]
Inorganic
Gold nanoparticle	Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide	Activation of DCs, enhanced cytokine production and proliferation of CD4 + and CD8 + T cells in splenocytes	[65]
Layered double hydroxide nanoparticles	Indocyanine green, doxorubicin, and CpG	Eradication of primary tumor and prevention of tumor recurrence and metastasis	[87]
Copper sulfide nanoparticles modified with maleimide-PEG	–	Creation of tumor immunogenetic microenvironment, followed by enhancement in the number of tumor-infiltrating CD8 + T cells	[93]
Hybrid nanoparticle
Fe3O4 nanoparticles with reduced-graphene oxide (rGO) and PEG	–	Induction of DC activation and ICD in tumor draining lymph nodes	[92]
Albumin coated aluminum hydroxide oxide	Melittin and chlorin e6	Increased generation of reactive oxygen species and consequent ICD	[85]
Naturally derived
Viral capsid VP2 protein	Multi-neoepitopes including Tmtc2, Gprc5 Qars, and surviving	Enhanced proliferative responses of CD8 + and CD4 + T lymphocytes and generation of granzyme-B in lymphatic nodes local to the tumor	[106]
EVs from NK-92MI cells	IL-15	Increased cytotoxicity against cancer cells	[111]
Lambda phage coat protein gpD	AE37 peptide	Generation of robust immune responses in TUBO model of breast cancer	[108]