Table 2.
Summary of gelatin/bioactive glass composites for various biomedical applications.
| Bioactive Glass | Technique | Composites’ Characteristics | Applications | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 40SiO2-45CaO-15P2O5 | Sequential physical and chemical crosslinking (gelation + UV) approach | Average pore size = 90–200 μm. Compressive modulus: “regular” composites hydrogels (0, 2.5, 5 and 10% w/v BG) = 54.1, 51.2, 50.2, 46.0 kPa; “enhanced” composite hydrogels were approximately 4.4-, 3.8-, 3.5-and 3.3-folds greater than those of “regular” composites hydrogels at 0 to 10% w/v BG. High apatite forming ability. Highly biocompatible; enhanced ALP activity | Hydrogels for bone regeneration | [111] |
| 64S | Layer solvent casting combined with freeze-drying and lamination techniques | Porosity = 85%; average pore size = 200–500 μm. No cytotoxic effect on the cell survival and proliferation in vitro; bone regeneration in vivo | Scaffolds for tissue-engineered bone defects | [112] |
| 64SiO2-5P2O5-31CaO mol% | Freeze-drying technique | Total porosity = 80%; micro-sized porous surface structure = 200–500 μm; elastic modulus = 64 ± 1.3 MPa; compressive yield strength = 4.3 ± 0.23 MPa. No cytotoxic effects; good viability of cells in vitro. Woven bone tissue formation in vivo |
Scaffolds for bone defects | [113] |
| nBG (64SiO2 -5P2O5 - 31CaO mol%) |
Layer solvent casting combined with freeze-drying and lamination techniques | Pore size = 200–500 μm; elastic modulus = 50–80 MPa. Good cellular migration and osteoconductivity | Scaffolds for tissue engineering | [114] |
| BaG (64SiO2 -5P2O5 - 31CaO mol%) |
Layer solvent casting combined with freeze-drying and lamination techniques | Parallel aligned and inter-connected pores = 200–500 μm; porosity = 70–86%; Young’s modulus = 50–80 MPa. Improved attachment and penetration of cells into the pores | Scaffolds for bone tissue engineering | [115] |
| BaG (64SiO2 -5P2O5 - 31CaO mol%) |
Freeze-drying technique | Pore size = 200–500 μm; porosity = 70–86%. Young’s modulus: 10% BaG = 51 ± 1.8 MPa, 20% BaG = 58 ± 2.1 MPa, 30% BaG = 64 ± 1.3 MPa, 40% BaG = 72 ± 1.7 MPa, 50% BaG = 78 ± 1.2 MPa. Compressive yield strength: 10% BaG = 2.8 ± 0.26 MPa, 20% BaG = 3.7 ± 0.19 MPa, 30% BaG = 4.3 ± 0.23 MPa, 40% BaG = 4.9 ± 0.30 MPa, 50% BaG = 5.6 ± 0.61 MPa. Improved cell culture response |
Scaffolds for bone tissue engineering implant | [116] |
| 45S5 | Casting technique | Tensile stress = 0.75–2.1 MPa | Films for soft tissue engineering | [117] |
| 70SiO2–25CaO–5P2O5 mol% | Electrospinning technique | Free from bead-like defects; average fiber diameter = 192 ± 8 nm; tensile strength = 4.3 ± 1.2 MPa; elongation to failure = 168 ± 14%. 14 days after seeding, surfaces covered by multicellular layers; improved ALP activity | Hybrid scaffolds for bone regeneration | [118] |
| BG (75SiO2–25CaO wt%) | Sol–gel method | Porosity = 90%; after immersion in physiological fluids: compressive strength of class I (without covalent linkages between organic–inorganic networks) BG-gelatin = 1 kPa at 10% deformation and of class II (with covalent linkages between organic– inorganic networks) BG-gelatin = 108 kPa at 10% deformation; Young’s modulus class II BG-gelatin = 5-166 MPa; yield strength class II BG-gelatin = 0.2–4 MPa | Hybrid scaffolds for bone regenerative medicine and tissue engineering | [119] |
| 70S30C | Modified direct foaming technique | Modal pore size = 160–170 μm; effective stiffness = 5.87 ± 2.22 MPa; maximum compressive strength = 0.32 ± 0.03 MPa. Samples crosslinked: approximate stiffness = 7.19 ± 2.78 MPa, compressive strength = 0.24 ± 0.04 MPa. Rapid formation of apatite in SBF; excellent cell attachment 3 days after seeding | Scaffolds for bone augmentation and clinical applications | [120] |
| 70SiO2-25CaO-5P2O5 mol% | Solid free form fabrication (SFF) method | Large shrinkage after deposition and drying = 33% linear shrinkage in the plane of deposition and 40–50% in thickness; compressive strength = 3.7 ± 0.2 MPa; compressive strength crosslinked = 5.1 ± 0.6 MPa. Enhanced proliferation, ALP activity, and mineralization of osteogenic MC3T3-E1 (line of mouse pre-osteoblastic cells) in vitro | Hybrid scaffolds for bone regeneration | [121] |
| 75SiO2–25CaO wt % | Mixing solution and drying | Total porosity = 91 ± 1%; average pore size = 187 ± 6 μm with pores ranging from 105 to 295 μm; average interconnection diameter = 74 ± 4 μm with diameters ranging from 25 to 115 μm | Scaffolds for tissue engineering | [122] |
| 45S5, BG/Sr (SiO2-CaO-SrO-P2O5) Gel = gelatin |
Freeze-drying technique | Pore size: Gel-45S5 15% = 215 ± 12 μm; Gel-BG/Sr 5% = 201 ± 15 μm; Gel-BG/Sr 10% = 164 ± 10 μm; Gel-BG/Sr 15% = 154 ± 16 μm. Porosity: Gel-45S5 15% = 95 ± 2.0%; Gel-BG/Sr 5% = 89 ± 3.25 %; Gel-BG/Sr 10% = 85 ± 1.5 %; Gel-BG/Sr 15% = 80 ± 2.8 %. Young Modulus: Gel-45S5 15% = 14.36 ± 1.3 MPa; Gel-BG/Sr 5% = 10.21 ± 2.0 MPa; Gel-BG/Sr 10% = 19.30 ± 0.68 MPa; Gel-BG/Sr 15% = 70.62 ± 1.91 MPa. ALP secretion significantly enhanced in cells on Gel-BG/Sr15%; cell infiltration and migration enhanced for Gel-BG/Sr15% in vivo |
Scaffolds for bone tissue engineering | [123] |
| SiO2-CaO-P2O5-MgO-ZnO | Freeze-drying technique | Pore diameter in the range of 100–500 μm; average Young’s modulus = 28 ± 2 MPa; average yield strength = 4 ± 0.4 MPa. Insignificant reduction in cells proliferation and no severe toxicity | Scaffolds for bone tissue | [124] |
| BG (60SiO2-36CaO-4P2O5 mol%) mixed 0 wt%, 1 wt%, 2 wt%, 3 wt%, 4 wt% tetrapod-like ZnO whiskers (indicated as BGZ0, BGZ1, BGZ2, BGZ3, BGZ4) |
Freeze-drying technique | Pore size = 100–800 μm; porosity = 80–90%; compression strength (MPa): BGZ0 = 2.62 ± 0.23, BGZ1 = 3.11 ± 0.28, BGZ2 = 3.69 ± 0.30, BGZ3 = 3.24 ± 0.12, BGZ4 = 2.97 ± 0.13. Elastic modulus (MPa): BGZ0 = 112.3 ± 15.9, BGZ1 = 154.6 ± 26.7, BGZ2 = 208.6 ± 31.4, BGZ3 = 147.3 ± 12.6, BGZ4 = 119.6 ± 10.8. Flexure strength (MPa): BGZ0 = 7.28 ± 0.82, BGZ1 = 8.54 ± 1.23, BGZ2 = 9.41 ± 0.72, BGZ3 = 8.48 ± 0.83, BGZ4 = 7.51 ± 1.09. Flexural modulus (MPa): BGZ0 = 612.6 ± 89.5, BGZ1 = 711.5 ± 121.5, BGZ2 = 883.4 ± 45.5, BGZ3 = 756.2 ± 80.9, BGZ4 = 666.0 ± 70.7. Increased proliferation of rat mesenchymal stem cells (rMSCs) |
Scaffolds for bone repair | [125] |
| Silver nanoparticles, 63S | Freeze-drying and crosslinking technique | Pore size of gelatin/nanosilver/bioactive glass scaffolds = 350–635 μm. Gelatin/nanosilver scaffolds high water uptake; gel fraction = 70–85%. Improved human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC) viability. Antibacterial effects against E. coli and S. aureus | Antibacterial scaffolds for bone tissue engineering | [126] |
| Cu-BGN (95SiO2-2.5CaO-2.5CuO mol%) | Dip coating technique | Porosity = 91%; The obtained scaffolds were designated as 5Cu-BGS and 20Cu-BGS according to the ratios (in wt%) of Cu-BGN/gelatin used (5 and 20 wt%). Compressive strength: 0Cu-BGS = 1.3 ± 0.2 MPa, 5Cu-BGS = 1.2 ± 0.2 MPa, 20Cu-BGS = 0.7 ± 0.3 MPa. Good HCA formation; improved mouse preosteoblastic cell lines (MC3T3-E1) proliferation and improved osteogenic activity | Coatings on BG scaffolds for bone regeneration/repair | [127] |