Table 1.
Viruses and infections |
Enteroviruses13 |
Cytomegalovirus14 |
Mumps15 |
Rubella15 |
Rotavirus16 |
Dietary factors |
Breastfeeding24 |
Cow’s milk78,94 |
Vitamin D51 |
Nitrates, nitrites, and N-nitroso compounds20,22 |
Gluten and fibre95–97 |
Solid foods and cereals98 |
Polyunsaturated fatty acids99 |
Pollutants |
Air pollution100,101 |
Toxins93,102,103 |
Chemical compounds93,102 |
Gut microbiome28 |
Urban versus rural residence104 |
Family density105 |
Overload and accelerator hypotheses |
Birthweight104,106 |
Childhood growth107 |
Perinatal and psychological stresses108 Childhood obesity/overweight25 |
Post-translational modification and neoautoantigens109,110 |