Table 1.
Characteristics of all participants with adequate quality post-bronchodilator (post-BD) spirometry
| Overall (n=47) | Post-BD airflow obstruction [zFEV1/FVC < −1.64], n=13 | No post-BD airflow obstruction [zFEV1/FVC ≥ −1.64], n=34 | p-value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age, years, median (IQR) | 13 (11 – 15) | 13 (11 – 15) | 13 (11 – 15) | 0.95 |
| Female, n (%) | 21 (45) | 9 (69) | 12 (35) | 0.05 |
| Ever lived with a smoker, n (%) | 16 (34) | 4 (31) | 12 (35) | 1.0 |
| Energy source for heating/cooking‡, n (%) | ||||
| Any combustible fuel | 42 (89) | 12 (92) | 30 (88) | 1.0 |
| Paraffin/kerosene | 20 (43) | 6 (46) | 14 (41) | 1.0 |
| Wood | 9 (19) | 2 (15) | 7 (21) | 0.5 |
| Charcoal | 30 (64) | 7 (54) | 23 (68) | 1.0 |
| Self-reported prior pulmonary infection, n (%) | ||||
| Pneumonia (presumed bacterial) | 17 (36) | 5 (38) | 12 (35) | 1.0 |
| Tuberculosis | 11 (23) | 4 (31) | 7 (21) | 0.47 |
| Respiratory symptoms, n (%) | ||||
| Any respiratory symptom^ | 39 (83) | 12 (92) | 27 (79) | 0.41 |
| Cough | 30 (64) | 10 (77) | 20 (59) | 0.32 |
| Wheeze | 17 (37) | 5 (42) | 12 (35) | 0.74 |
| Stunted growth (ht-for-age Z-score < −2) | 11 (23) | 4 (31) | 7 (21) | 0.47 |
| Malnourished (BMI-for-age Z-score < −2) | 11 (23) | 5 (38) | 6 (18) | 0.25 |
| HIV-related variables* | ||||
| Perinatal HIV acquisition, n (%) | 45 (96) | 12 (92) | 33 (97) | 0.48 |
| ART initiation age (yrs), med (IQR) | 8 (4 – 11) | 11 (7 – 12) | 6 (4 – 10) | 0.04 |
| WHO HIV Clinical Stage 3/4, n (%) | 16 (34) | 5 (38) | 11 (32) | 0.74 |
| Recent CD4, cells/μL, median (IQR) | 672 (453 – 951) | 672 (188 – 840) | 667 (507 – 953) | 0.42 |
| Recent CD8, cells/μL, median (IQR) | 1005 (838 – 1341) | 1090 (916 – 1532) | 977 (829 – 1290) | 0.44 |
| Nadir CD4, cells/μL, median (IQR) | 269 (153 – 471) | 297 (135 – 542) | 263 (207 – 469) | 0.89 |
| Current ART use, n (%) | 44 (94) | 12 (92) | 32 (94) | 0.49 |
| Current co-trimoxazole use, n (%) | 45 (96) | 12 (92) | 33 (97) | 0.28 |
| Serum biomarkers, median (IQR) | ||||
| Inflammation, innate immune activation and T-cell imbalance | ||||
| Interleukin-6 (IL-6), pg/mL | 0.47 (0.25 – 0.95) | 0.57 (0.30 – 0.83) | 0.45 (0.25 – 0.95) | 0.62 |
| C-reactive protein (CRP), μg/mL | 1.15 (0.33 – 3.99) | 1.17 (0.79 – 10.4) | 1.08 (0.33 – 3.32) | 0.26 |
| Serum Amyloid-A (SAA), ng/mL | 1,619 (530 – 5,063) | 3,843 (846 – 10,400) | 1,608 (297 – 3,511) | 0.26 |
| sTREM-1, pg/mL | 50.4 (38.8 – 70.7) | 62.0 (43.5 – 81.8) | 50.4 (34.4 – 64.3) | 0.17 |
| sCD14, ng/mL | 2,344 (2,017 – 2,697) | 2,607 (2,231 – 3,261) | 2,288 (2,004 – 2,492) | 0.11 |
| sCD163, ng/mL | 302 (222 – 482) | 312 (222– 454) | 293 (237 – 482) | 0.79 |
| CD4/CD8 ratio (recent)* | 0.69 (0.35 – 0.94) | 0.63 (0.13 – 0.96) | 0.72 (0.42 – 0.94) | 0.31 |
| Endothelial activation | ||||
| sVCAM-1, ng/mL | 475 (376 – 602) | 474 (405 – 643) | 481 (360 – 577) | 0.46 |
| sICAM-1, ng/mL | 395 (308 – 447) | 419 (351 – 434) | 383 (298 – 447) | 0.26 |
| Angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1), ng/mL | 33.0 (25.3 – 41.1) | 32.9 (17.4 – 36.4) | 33.1 (25.4 – 42.3) | 0.35 |
| Angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2), ng/mL | 9.44 (7.95 – 15.0) | 9.44 (7.95 – 15.6) | 9.95 (7.82 – 14.4) | 0.79 |
| Ang-2/Ang-1 ratio | 0.34 (0.23 – 0.57) | 0.41 (0.24 – 0.56) | 0.34 (0.23 – 0.57) | 0.43 |
| Endothelin-1, pg/mL | 1.38 (1.16 – 1.71) | 1.33 (1.17 – 1.67) | 1.39 (1.16 – 1.72) | 0.67 |
‡
Participants could have reported use of >1 energy source.
^
Any respiratory symptom includes report of cough, wheeze, breathlessness and/or chest tightness.
*
CD4 and CD8 T-cell counts missing for one participant with FEV1/FVC z-score < −1.64. Of note, although adherence to ART and HIV-related clinic follow-up is high, a few individuals are transiently not adherent to ART and/or follow-up; non-adherence to ART is often related to side effects or self-initiated “ART breaks”.