Table 2:
Neuroimaging studies that included adolescents or young adults with variable outcomes from their childhood ADHD. There were no examples of the ‘emergent’ model among the literature of adolescent ADHD. Note that cross-sectional imaging studies conducted in adolescence that find remitters are similar to the never affected are consistent with both the convergence or ‘carried forward’ models.
| Reference | Persistent ADHD / Remitted / Never Affected |
Entry Age (years mean and SD) |
Follow- up |
Modality and task |
Convergence OR Carried forward (remitters= typicals) |
Compensation (remitters show unique features) |
Fixed anomaly (persisters= remitters) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Michelini et al. (58) | 87/23/169 | 13 | 19 (3) | EEG: Eriksen Flanker task | Error related negativity (remitters=never-affected) Conflict monitoring (remitters lie intermediate to persisters and never affected) |
- | - |
| Cheung et al. (57) | 87/23/169 | 13 | 19 (3) | EEG: Cued flanker continuous performance task | Contingent negative variation during preparation-vigilance (remitters=never affected) Executive, processes (remitters lie intermediate to persisters and never affected) |
- | - |
| Michelini et al (67) | 87/23/169 | 13 | 19 (3) | EEG: arrow flanker task | - | - | Hyper-connectivity in beta band pre and post-stimulus and reduced pre-post stimulus change in theta connectivity. |
| Schulz et al. (51) | 11/16/28 | 7-11 | 24 (2) | fMRI: Stimulus and response conflict task | Fronto-parietal activation during high cognitive demand | - | - |
| Szekely et al. (53) | fMRI: 24/40/84 MEG: 25/26/46 |
9 (1) | 24 (4) | MEG and fMRI: Response inhibition | Prefrontal inhibitory processing | - | Striatal inhibitory activity |
| Sudre et al. (54) | fMRI: 41/35/71 MEG: 32/35/58 |
9 (1) | 24 (4) | MEG and fMRI: Default mode and its interconnections | Default mode network internal and external connectivity | - | |
| Francx et al. (55) | 59 (persistent symptoms)/42 (improving symptoms) /40 | 12 | 18 (3) | Diffusion tensor imaging | Voxel level measures of white matter microstructure | - | - |
| Shaw et al. (44) | 32/43/74 | 10 (3) | 23 (4) | Diffusion tensor imaging | Tract level measures of white matter tract microstructure | - | - |
| Shaw et al. (50) | 37/55/184 | 10 (3) | 24 (3) | Anatomic imaging | Thickness of cortical regions involved in cognitive control (the finding is only consistent with convergence). | - | - |
| Luo et al (56) | 16/16/32 | 9(1) | 24(2) | Diffusion tensor imaging | Tract level measures of white matter tract microstructure (caudate to cortical regions) | Microstructure of L parieto-insular tract | |
| Clerkin et al (66) | 16/19/32 | 9(1) | 24(2) | fMRI: cued response preparation | - | Thalamo-cortical connectivity during response preparation | Thalamic activity |
| Francx et al. (65) | 74 (persistent symptoms)/55 (improving symptoms; 19 reached remission)/100 | 12 | 18 (3) | Resting state fMRI: Cognitive control network | - | Hyper- connectivity in anterior regions of cognitive control network | - |