Table 1.
List of GDF15 functions and mechanisms on different lung diseases.
| Age/Condition | Role of GDF15 | References |
|---|---|---|
| Pregnancy and neonatal period/Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) | Promotes proliferation and differentiation in fetal lung development | (19) |
| Maternal serum levels increase throughout during pregnancy | (12) | |
| High serum levels in term neonates that decline postnatally | (20) | |
| Upregulated in neonatal mice exposed to hyperoxia in vivo | (21) | |
| Upregulated in pulmonary epithelial and endothelial cells exposed to hyperoxia | (22) | |
| GDF15 loss leads to decreased cell viability and increased oxidative stress | (23) | |
| Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) | Higher serum levels are associated with increased morbidity and mortality | (4, 24) |
| Mediates smoking-induced inflammation and cellular senescence | (25–27) | |
| Promotes mucin production in ciliated epithelial cells | (28) | |
| Exacerbates lung inflammation secondary to infection | (29) | |
| Contributes to cachexia: GFRAL mediated signaling, induces lipolysis and promotes muscle wasting | (30–33) | |
| Pulmonary Hypertension (PH) | Associated with prognosis and response to therapy | (34–36) |
| Levels increased in pediatric PH related to congenital heart disease | (37) | |
| Associated with increase in right atrial and pulmonary capillary wedge pressure | (34) | |
| Induces muscle atrophy that is reversed by TAK1 inhibitor | (38) | |
| Promotes angiogenesis and hinders endothelial cell apoptosis | (39, 40) | |
| Lung Fibrosis | Associated with disease severity | (41) |
| Associated with higher odds of interstitial lung abnormality | (42) | |
| Activates fibroblasts and M2 macrophages | (40) | |
| Prevents the activation of fibroblasts during lung remodeling | (43) |